tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-81692702788454880642024-03-13T20:56:19.180+08:00Did You Know?zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comBlogger124125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-13343744211426722382024-03-05T00:45:00.001+08:002024-03-05T12:43:19.625+08:00Sun activity is not caused global warming, but by humans yes it is. Continued stress on greenhouse gases can significantly increase global high temperatures<div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Patterns
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance"><span style="color: blue;">solar irradiance</span></a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_variation" title="Solar variation"><span style="color: blue;">solar variation</span></a>
have been the main drivers of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" title="Climate change (general concept)"><span style="color: blue;">climate
change</span></a> over the millions to billions of years of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale"><span style="color: blue;">geologic time scale</span></a>.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Evidence
that this is the case comes from analysis on many timescales and from many
sources, including direct observations; composites from baskets of different
proxy observations; and numerical climate models. On millennial timescales,
paleoclimate indicators have been compared to cosmogenic isotope abundances as
the latter are a proxy for solar activity. These have also been used on century
times scales but, in addition, instrumental data are increasingly available
(mainly telescopic observations of sunspots and thermometer measurements of air
temperature) and show that, for example, the temperature fluctuations do not
match the solar activity variations and that the commonly-invoked association
of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age"><span style="color: blue;">Little Ice Age</span></a> with
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunder_minimum" title="Maunder minimum"><span style="color: blue;">Maunder minimum</span></a> is
far too simplistic as, although solar variations may have played a minor role,
a much bigger factor is known to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Age_volcanism" title="Little Ice Age volcanism"><span style="color: blue;">Little Ice Age
volcanism</span></a>. In recent decades observations of unprecedented accuracy,
sensitivity, and scope (of both solar activity and terrestrial climate) have
become available from spacecraft and show unequivocally that recent global
warming is not caused by changes in the Sun.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Since
1978, solar irradiance has been directly measured by satellites with very good
accuracy.<sup> </sup> These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar
irradiance fluctuates by +-0.1% over the ~11 years of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle"><span style="color: blue;">solar cycle</span></a>, but that its average value has been
stable since the measurements started in 1978. Solar irradiance before the
1970s is estimated using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)"><span style="color: blue;">proxy variables</span></a>,
such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_rings" title="Tree rings"><span style="color: blue;">tree rings</span></a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_number" title="Wolf number"><span style="color: blue;">number of sunspots</span></a>, and the abundances of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide"><span style="color: blue;">cosmogenic</span></a>
isotopes such as <sup>10</sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium"><span style="color: blue;">Be</span></a>, all of which are
calibrated to the post-1978 direct measurements.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Solar
activity has been on a declining trend since the 1960s, as indicated by solar
cycles 19–24 (current solar cycles 25), in which the maximum number of sunspots
were 201, 111, 165, 159, 121, and 82, respectively. In the three decades
following 1978, the combination of solar and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_activity" title="Volcanic activity"><span style="color: blue;">volcanic activity</span></a> is estimated to have had a
slight cooling influence. A 2010 study found that the composition of solar
radiation might have changed slightly, with in an increase of ultraviolet
radiation and a decrease in other wavelengths."</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><b><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">Solar
variation theory</span></span></b></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></b></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">The
link between recent solar activity and climate has been quantified and is not a
major driver of the warming that has occurred since early in the twentieth
century. Human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th-century
warming.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">A
1994 study by the US National Research Council concluded that TSI variations
were the most likely cause of significant climate change in the pre-industrial
era before significant human-generated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: blue;">carbon dioxide</span></a> entered the atmosphere.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Scafetta" title="Nicola Scafetta"><span style="color: blue;">Scafetta</span></a> and West correlated solar proxy data and
lower <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere"><span style="color: blue;">tropospheric</span></a> temperature for the preindustrial
era, before significant anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, suggesting that TSI
variations may have contributed 50% of the warming observed between 1900 and
2000 (although they conclude "our estimates about the solar effect on
climate might be overestimated and should be considered as an upper
limit.") If interpreted as a detection rather than an upper limit, this
would contrast with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_climate_models" title="Global climate models"><span style="color: blue;">global climate models</span></a>
predicting that solar forcing of climate through direct radiative forcing makes
an insignificant contribution.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">In
2000, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_A._Stott" title="Peter A. Stott"><span style="color: blue;">Stott</span></a> and others
reported on the most comprehensive model simulations of 20th-century climate to
that date. Their study looked at both "natural forcing agents" (solar
variations and volcanic emissions) as well as "anthropogenic forcing"
(greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols). They found that "solar effects
may have contributed significantly to the warming in the first half of the
century although this result is dependent on the reconstruction of total solar
irradiance that is used. In the latter half of the century, we find that
anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases are largely responsible for the
observed warming, balanced by some cooling due to anthropogenic sulphate
aerosols, with no evidence for significant solar effects." Stott's group
found that combining these factors enabled them to closely simulate global
temperature changes throughout the 20th century. They predicted that continued
greenhouse gas emissions would cause additional future temperature increases
"at a rate similar to that observed in recent decades". In addition,
the study notes "uncertainties in historical forcing" — in other
words, past natural forcing may still be having a delayed warming effect, most
likely due to the oceans.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><span>Stott's
2003 work largely revised his assessment, and found a significant solar
contribution to recent warming, although still smaller (between 16 and 36%)
than that of greenhouse gases.</span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif""><sup></sup></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">A
study in 2004 concluded that solar activity affects the climate - based on
sunspot activity, yet plays only a small role in the current global warming.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><b><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">Human activities increased Anthropogenic Global
Warming and temperature change</span></b></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">Greenhouse
gases, such as CO</span><sub><span style="line-height: 107%;">2</span></sub></span><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span>, methane, and nitrous oxide, heat the climate
system by trapping infrared light. Volcanoes are also part of the extended <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle"><span style="color: blue;">carbon cycle</span></a>. Since the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution" title="Industrial revolution"><span style="color: blue;">industrial revolution</span></a>,
humanity has been adding to greenhouse gases by emitting CO<sub>2</sub> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel"><span style="color: blue;">fossil fuel</span></a> combustion, changing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use"><span style="color: blue;">land use</span></a> through deforestation, and further
altering the climate with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosols" title="Aerosols"><span style="color: blue;">aerosols</span></a> (particulate matter
in the atmosphere), release of trace gases (e.g. nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, or methane). Other factors, including land use, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion"><span style="color: blue;">ozone depletion</span></a>, animal husbandry (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant"><span style="color: blue;">ruminant</span></a> animals such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle"><span style="color: blue;">cattle</span></a> produce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane" title="Methane"><span style="color: blue;">methane</span></a>), and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation"><span style="color: blue;">deforestation</span></a>, also play a role.</span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif""><sup></sup></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">The
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Geological_Survey" title="US Geological Survey"><span style="color: blue;">US Geological Survey</span></a>
estimates that volcanic emissions are at a much lower level than the
effects of current human activities, which generate 100–300 times the amount of
carbon dioxide emitted by volcanoes. The annual amount put out by human
activities may be greater than the amount released by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano"><span style="color: blue;">supereruptions</span></a>.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">As
a consequence of humans emitting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas"><span style="color: blue;">greenhouse gases</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_air_temperature" title="Surface air temperature"><span style="color: blue;">global surface
temperatures</span></a> have started rising. Global warming is an aspect of
modern climate change, a term that also includes the observed changes in
precipitation, storm tracks, and cloudiness. As a consequence, glaciers
worldwide have been found to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Retreat_of_Glaciers_Since_1850" title="The Retreat of Glaciers Since 1850"><span style="color: blue;">shrinking
significantly</span></a>. Land ice sheets in both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica"><span style="color: blue;">Antarctica</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland"><span style="color: blue;">Greenland</span></a> have been losing mass since 2002 and
have seen an acceleration of ice mass loss since 2009. Global sea levels have
been rising as a consequence of thermal expansion and ice melt. The decline in
Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness, over the last several decades is
further evidence of rapid climate change.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Changes
in global temperatures over the past century provide evidence for the effects
of increasing greenhouse gasses. When the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system"><span style="color: blue;">climate system</span></a> reacts to such changes, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" title="Climate change (general concept)"><span style="color: blue;">climate
change</span></a> follows. Measurement of the GST (global surface temperature)
is one of the many lines of evidence supporting the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change"><span style="color: blue;">scientific
consensus on climate change</span></a>, which is that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming"><span style="color: blue;">humans are causing warming of Earth's climate system</span></a>.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">The
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system"><span style="color: blue;">climate system</span></a> receives nearly all of its energy
from the sun and radiates energy to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space"><span style="color: blue;">outer space</span></a>. The balance of incoming and outgoing
energy and the passage of energy through the climate system is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget"><span style="color: blue;">Earth's energy budget</span></a>.
When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy
budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out,
the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Global
warming affects all parts of Earth's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system"><span style="color: blue;">climate system</span></a>. Global surface temperatures have
risen by 1.1 °C (2.0 °F). Scientists say they will rise further in
the future. The changes in climate are not uniform across the Earth. In
particular, most land areas have warmed faster than most ocean areas. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic"><span style="color: blue;">Arctic</span></a> is warming faster than most other regions.
Night-time temperatures have increased faster than daytime temperatures. The
impact on nature and people depends on how much more the Earth warms.<sup></sup></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: 107%;">Scientists
use several methods to predict the effects of human-caused climate change. One
is to investigate past natural changes in climate. To assess changes in Earth's
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimate" title="Paleoclimate"><span style="color: blue;">past climate</span></a> scientists have studied <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_rings" title="Tree rings"><span style="color: blue;">tree rings</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core"><span style="color: blue;">ice cores</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral"><span style="color: blue;">corals</span></a>,
and ocean and lake <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment"><span style="color: blue;">sediments</span></a>. These show that
recent temperatures have surpassed anything in the last 2,000 years. By the end
of the 21st century, at that time, mean global temperatures were about
2–4 °C (3.6–7.2 °F) warmer than pre-industrial temperatures. The
modern observed rise in temperature and CO</span><span style="vertical-align: -0.35em;"><span style="line-height: 107%;">2</span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">
concentrations has been rapid, even abrupt geophysical events in Earth's
history do not approach current rates.</span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><b><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">Land and Oceans are rapidly affected by Climate
change</span></b></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><b><br /></b></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change"><span style="color: blue;">Climate change</span></a> affects the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_environment" title="Physical environment"><span style="color: blue;">physical environment</span></a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems" title="Ecosystems"><span style="color: blue;">ecosystems</span></a>, and human societies. Changes in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system"><span style="color: blue;">climate system</span></a> include an overall warming trend,
more extreme weather, and rising sea levels. These in turn impact nature and
wildlife, as well as human settlements and societies. The effects of
human-caused climate change are broad and far-reaching. This is especially so
if there is no significant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action"><span style="color: blue;">climate action</span></a>. Experts sometimes describe the
projected and observed negative impacts of climate change as the climate
crisis.</span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">The
changes in climate are not uniform across the Earth. In particular, most land
areas have warmed faster than most ocean areas. The Arctic is warming faster
than most other regions. There are many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans"><span style="color: blue;">effects of
climate change on oceans</span></a>. These include an increase in ocean temperatures,
a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise"><span style="color: blue;">rise in sea level</span></a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content"><span style="color: blue;">ocean warming</span></a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet"><span style="color: blue;">ice sheet</span></a> melting. They include increased <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification"><span style="color: blue;">ocean stratification</span></a>.
They also include changes to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_currents" title="Ocean currents"><span style="color: blue;">ocean currents</span></a> including a weakening of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation"><span style="color: blue;">Atlantic
meridional overturning circulation</span></a>.<sup> </sup> Carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification"><span style="color: blue;">acidifying the ocean</span></a>.</span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">Recent
warming has had a big effect on natural biological systems.<sup> </sup> It has <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation"><span style="color: blue;">degraded land</span></a> by raising temperatures, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity"><span style="color: blue;">drying soils</span></a>, and increasing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire"><span style="color: blue;">wildfire</span></a> risk.<sup> </sup> Species all over the
world are migrating towards the poles to colder areas. On land, many species
move to higher ground, whereas marine species seek colder water at greater
depths. At 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming, around 10% of species on land
would become critically endangered.</span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-22056272564794980342024-02-03T20:30:00.005+08:002024-02-03T20:32:41.577+08:00Rugged, lower power and more resistant to physical shock of NAND flash-based SSDs is about to replace rotating-platters HDDs in a few years<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">A <b>hard
disk drive</b> (<b>HDD</b>), is an electro-mechanical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device" title="Data storage device"><span style="color: blue;">data storage device</span></a>
that stores and retrieves <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data"><span style="color: blue;">digital data</span></a> using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage"><span style="color: blue;">magnetic storage</span></a> with one or more rigid rapidly
rotating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_platter" title="Hard disk platter"><span style="color: blue;">platters</span></a> coated
with magnetic material. The platters are made from a non-magnetic material,
usually <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_alloy" title="Aluminium alloy"><span style="color: blue;">aluminum alloy</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass" title="Glass"><span style="color: blue;">glass</span></a>,
or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic"><span style="color: blue;">ceramic</span></a>. The platters are paired with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_read-and-write_head" title="Disk read-and-write head"><span style="color: blue;">magnetic heads</span></a>,
usually arranged on a moving <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator" title="Actuator"><span style="color: blue;">actuator</span></a> arm, which read and
write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access" title="Random-access"><span style="color: blue;">random-access</span></a> manner, meaning that individual <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_(data_storage)" title="Block (data storage)"><span style="color: blue;">blocks</span></a> of data
can be stored and retrieved in any order. HDDs are a type of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_storage" title="Non-volatile storage"><span style="color: blue;">non-volatile storage</span></a>,
retains stored data when powered off. Modern HDDs are typically in the form
of a small <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_enclosure" title="Disk enclosure"><span style="color: blue;">rectangular box</span></a>.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">The two most
common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch, for desktop computers, and
2.5-inch, primarily for laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_interface" title="Computer interface"><span style="color: blue;">interface</span></a> cables
such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_ATA" title="Parallel ATA"><span style="color: blue;">PATA</span></a> (Parallel ATA), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SATA" title="SATA"><span style="color: blue;">SATA</span></a>
(Serial ATA), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB" title="USB"><span style="color: blue;">USB</span></a> or SAS (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Attached_SCSI" title="Serial Attached SCSI"><span style="color: blue;">Serial Attached SCSI</span></a>)
cables, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel" title="Fibre Channel"><span style="color: blue;">Fibre Channel</span></a>.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Introduced
by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM"><span style="color: blue;">IBM</span></a> in 1956, HDDs were the dominant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storage" title="Secondary storage"><span style="color: blue;">secondary storage</span></a> device for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_general-purpose_CPUs" title="History of general-purpose CPUs"><span style="color: blue;">general-purpose
computers</span></a> beginning in the early 1960s. HDDs maintained this
position in the modern era of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)"><span style="color: blue;">servers</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer"><span style="color: blue;">personal computers</span></a>, though personal computing
devices produced in large volumes, like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone"><span style="color: blue;">mobile phones</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer"><span style="color: blue;">tablets</span></a>, rely on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory"><span style="color: blue;">flash memory</span></a> storage devices.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">In the 2000s
and 2010s, NAND flash-based SSDs began supplanting HDDs in applications
requiring portability or high performance. NAND performance is improving faster
than HDDs, and applications for HDDs are eroding. The highest-capacity HDDs
shipping commercially in 2022 are 26 TB, while the largest capacity SSDs
had a capacity of 100 TB. HDD unit shipments peaked at 651 million units
in 2010 and have been declining since then to 166 million units in 2022.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;">Advantages of SSDs
over Traditional spinning platters</span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">A solid-state
drive (SSD) is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_storage" title="Solid-state storage"><span style="color: blue;">solid-state storage</span></a>
device that uses <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit"><span style="color: blue;">integrated circuit</span></a>
assemblies to store data <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_(computer_science)" title="Persistence (computer science)"><span style="color: blue;">persistently</span></a>,
typically using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory"><span style="color: blue;">flash memory</span></a> and
functions as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storage" title="Secondary storage"><span style="color: blue;">secondary storage</span></a>
in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Hierarchy_of_storage" title="Computer data storage"><span style="color: blue;">hierarchy of computer
storage</span></a>. It is also sometimes called a semiconductor storage
device, a solid-state device, or a solid-state disk, even
though SSDs lack the physical spinning <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive_platter" title="Hard disk drive platter"><span style="color: blue;">disks</span></a> and
movable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_read-and-write_head" title="Disk read-and-write head"><span style="color: blue;">read-write heads</span></a>
used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive"><span style="color: blue;">hard disk drives</span></a>
(HDDs) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk"><span style="color: blue;">floppy disks</span></a>. SSD also
has rich internal parallelism for data processing. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive"><span style="color: blue;">Solid-state drives</span></a> (SSDs) have higher
data-transfer rates, higher areal storage density, somewhat better reliability,
and much lower latency and access times.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Flash-based
SSDs store data in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor"><span style="color: blue;">metal–oxide–semiconductor</span></a>
(MOS) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit"><span style="color: blue;">integrated circuit</span></a>
chips which contain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory"><span style="color: blue;">non-volatile</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-gate" title="Floating-gate"><span style="color: blue;">floating-gate</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)"><span style="color: blue;">memory cells</span></a>.
Flash memory-based solutions are typically packaged in standard disk drive form
factors (1.8-, 2.5-, and 3.5-inch), but also in smaller more compact form
factors, such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.2" title="M.2"><span style="color: blue;">M.2</span></a> form factor, made possible by the small size
of flash memory.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">The key
components of an SSD are the controller and the memory to store the data. The
primary memory component in an SSD was traditionally <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAM" title="DRAM"><span style="color: blue;">DRAM</span></a>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory"><span style="color: blue;">volatile memory</span></a>, but since 2009, it has been more
commonly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_flash" title="NAND flash"><span style="color: blue;">NAND flash</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory"><span style="color: blue;">non-volatile memory</span></a>.
Every SSD includes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory_controller" title="Flash memory controller"><span style="color: blue;">a controller</span></a>
that incorporates the electronics that bridge the NAND memory components to the
host <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer"><span style="color: blue;">computer</span></a>. The controller is an embedded processor
that executes firmware-level code and is one of the most important factors of
SSD performance.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">In
comparison to hard disk drives and similar electromechanical media which use
moving parts, SSDs are typically more resistant to physical shock, run
silently, and have higher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output_rate" title="Input/output rate"><span style="color: blue;">input/output rates</span></a> and lower <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)"><span style="color: blue;">latency</span></a>. SSDs
based on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_flash" title="NAND flash"><span style="color: blue;">NAND flash</span></a> will slowly leak charge over time if
left for long periods without power. This causes worn-out drives (that have
exceeded their endurance rating) to start losing data typically after one year
(if stored at 30 °C) to two years (at 25 °C) in storage; for new
drives, it takes longer. Therefore, SSDs are not suitable for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_preservation" title="Data preservation"><span style="color: blue;">archival storage</span></a>. SSDs have a limited lifetime
number of writes and also slow down as they reach their full storage capacity.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Due to the
extremely close spacing between the heads and the disk surface, HDDs are
vulnerable to being damaged by a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_crash" title="Head crash"><span style="color: blue;">head crash</span></a> – a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_failure" title="Hard disk failure"><span style="color: blue;">failure of the disk</span></a> in which the head scrapes
across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film and
causing data loss. Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden
power failure, physical shock, contamination of the drive's internal enclosure,
wear and tear, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion"><span style="color: blue;">corrosion</span></a>, or poorly
manufactured platters and heads.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Most of the
advantages of solid-state drives over traditional hard drives are due to their
ability to access data completely electronically instead of
electromechanically, resulting in superior transfer speeds and mechanical
ruggedness.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;">Flash
memory as a replacement for hard drives</span></b></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">The size and
shape of any device are largely driven by the size and shape of the components
used to make that device. Traditional HDDs and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_drive" title="Optical disc drive"><span style="color: blue;">optical drives</span></a>
are designed around the rotating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive_platter" title="Hard disk drive platter"><span style="color: blue;">platter</span></a>(s)
or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc"><span style="color: blue;">optical disc</span></a> along with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive_spindle" title="Hard disk drive spindle"><span style="color: blue;">spindle motor</span></a>
inside. Since an SSD is made up of various interconnected <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit"><span style="color: blue;">integrated circuits</span></a>
(ICs) and an interface connector, its shape is no longer limited to the shape
of rotating media drives. Some solid-state storage solutions come in a larger
chassis that may even be a rack-mount form factor with numerous SSDs inside.
They would all connect to a common bus inside the chassis and connect outside
the box with a single connector. As of 2014, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSATA" title="MSATA"><span style="color: blue;">mSATA</span></a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.2" title="M.2"><span style="color: blue;">M.2</span></a> form factors also gained popularity,
primarily in laptops.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.2" title="M.2"><span style="color: blue;">M.2</span></a>
form factor, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a
natural transition from the mSATA and physical layout it used, to a more usable
and more advanced form factor. While mSATA took advantage of an existing form
factor and connector, M.2 has been designed to maximize usage of the card
space, while minimizing the footprint. The M.2 standard allows both SATA and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express" title="PCI Express"><span style="color: blue;">PCI Express</span></a> SSDs to be fitted onto M.2 modules. The
SSD was designed to be installed permanently inside a computer.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif""> </span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Due to their
generally prohibitive cost versus HDDs at the time, until 2009, SSDs were
mainly used in those aspects of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_critical" title="Mission critical"><span style="color: blue;">mission-critical</span></a> applications where the speed of
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"><span style="color: blue;">storage system</span></a>
needed to be as high as possible. Since flash memory has become a common
component of SSDs, the falling prices and increased densities have made it more
cost-effective for many other applications. For instance, in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing"><span style="color: blue;">distributed computing</span></a>
environment, SSDs can be used as the building block for a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_cache" title="Distributed cache"><span style="color: blue;">distributed cache</span></a> layer that temporarily absorbs
the large volume of user requests to the slower HDD-based backend storage
system. This layer provides much higher bandwidth and lower latency than the
storage system and can be managed in a number of forms, such as distributed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key-value_database" title="Key-value database"><span style="color: blue;">key-value databases</span></a>
and distributed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system" title="File system"><span style="color: blue;">file systems</span></a>. On
supercomputers, this layer is typically referred to as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burst_buffer" title="Burst buffer"><span style="color: blue;">burst buffer</span></a>. With this fast layer, users often
experience shorter system response times. Organizations that can benefit from
faster access to system data include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_securities#Trading" title="Equity securities"><span style="color: blue;">equity trading</span></a>
companies, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication"><span style="color: blue;">telecommunication</span></a>
corporations, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media"><span style="color: blue;">streaming media</span></a> and
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_editing" title="Video editing"><span style="color: blue;">video editing</span></a> firms. The list of applications
that could benefit from faster storage is vast.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Flash-based
solid-state drives can be used to create network appliances from general-purpose
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer"><span style="color: blue;">personal computer</span></a>
hardware. A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_protection" title="Write protection"><span style="color: blue;">write-protected</span></a> flash
drive containing the operating system and application software can substitute
for larger, less reliable disk drives or CD-ROMs. Appliances built this way can
provide an inexpensive alternative to expensive router and firewall hardware.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">SSDs based on
an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SD_card" title="SD card"><span style="color: blue;">SD card</span></a> with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Live_SD&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Live SD (page does not exist)"><span style="color: blue;">live SD</span></a>
operating system are easily <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SD_card#Optional_write-protect_tab" title="SD card"><span style="color: blue;">write-locked</span></a>. Combined with
a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing"><span style="color: blue;">cloud computing</span></a>
environment or other writable medium, to maintain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_(computer_science)" title="Persistence (computer science)"><span style="color: blue;">persistence</span></a>,
an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system"><span style="color: blue;">OS</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting" title="Booting"><span style="color: blue;">booted</span></a> from a write-locked SD card is robust,
rugged, reliable, and impervious to permanent corruption. If the running OS
degrades, simply turning the machine off and then on returns it back to its
initial uncorrupted state and thus is particularly solid. The SD card installed
OS does not require removal of corrupted components since it was write-locked
though any written media may need to be restored.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">One source
states that, in 2008, the flash memory industry included about US$9.1 billion
in production and sales. Other sources put the flash memory market at a size of
more than US$20 billion in 2006, accounting for more than eight percent of the
overall semiconductor market and more than 34 percent of the total
semiconductor memory market. In 2012, the market was estimated at $26.8
billion, it can take up to 10 weeks to produce a flash memory chip. Samsung
remains the largest NAND flash memory manufacturer as of the first quarter 2022.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Technology
assessment</b> (<b>TA</b>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language"><span style="color: blue;">German</span></a>: <i><span lang="DE">Technikfolgenabschätzung</span></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language"><span style="color: blue;">French</span></a>: <i><span lang="FR">Évaluation des choix scientifiques
et technologiques</span></i></span><span style="font-size: medium;">) is
a practical process of determining the value of a new or emerging technology in
and of itself or against existing technologies. This is a means of assessing
and rating the new technology from the time when it was first developed to the
time when it is potentially accepted by the public and authorities for further
use. In essence, TA could be defined as "a form of policy research that
examines short- and long-term consequences (for example, societal, economic,
ethical, legal) of the application of technology."</span></span><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">TA is the
study and evaluation of new technologies. It is a way of trying to forecast and
prepare for the upcoming technological advancements and their repercussions on society, and then make decisions based on the judgments. It is based on the
conviction that new developments within, and discoveries by, the scientific
community are relevant for the world at large rather than just for the
scientific experts themselves and that technological progress can never be
free of ethical implications. Also, technology assessment recognizes the fact
that scientists normally are not trained <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicist" title="Ethicist"><span style="color: blue;">ethicists</span></a> themselves and accordingly ought to be
very careful when passing ethical judgment on their own, or their colleagues,
new findings, projects, or work in progress. TA is a very broad phenomenon
that also includes aspects such as "diffusion of technology (and
technology transfer), factors leading to rapid acceptance of new technology,
and the role of technology and society."</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Technology
assessment assumes a global perspective and is future-oriented, not
anti-technological. TA considers its task as an interdisciplinary approach to
solving already existing problems and preventing potential damage caused by the
uncritical application and commercialization of new technologies.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;">Therefore, any
results of technology assessment studies must be published, and particular
consideration must be given to communication with political decision-makers.</span></span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-7074171439257379452024-01-02T04:01:00.000+08:002024-01-02T04:01:17.804+08:00Synthetic Formaldehyde “known to be a human carcinogen” in common indoor pollutant and contaminant in foods<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><b>Formaldehyde</b>
(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferred_IUPAC_name" title="Preferred IUPAC name"><span style="color: blue;">systematic name</span></a>
<b>methanal</b>) is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound"><span style="color: blue;">organic compound</span></a>
with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula"><span style="color: blue;">formula</span></a> CH<sub>2</sub>O
and structure H−CHO. The compound is a pungent, colorless gas that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization"><span style="color: blue;">polymerizes</span></a> spontaneously into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraformaldehyde" title="Paraformaldehyde"><span style="color: blue;">paraformaldehyde</span></a>. It is stored as aqueous
solutions (<b>formalin</b>), which consists mainly of the hydrate CH<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>.
It is produced commercially as a precursor to many other materials and chemical
compounds. In 2006, the global production rate of formaldehyde was estimated at
12 million tons per year. It is mainly used in the production of
industrial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resin" title="Resin"><span style="color: blue;">resins</span></a>, e.g., for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_board" title="Particle board"><span style="color: blue;">particle boards</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating" title="Coating"><span style="color: blue;">coatings</span></a>. Small amounts also occur naturally. </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde is produced
industrially by the catalytic oxidation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol"><span style="color: blue;">methanol</span></a>. The most common catalysts are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver" title="Silver"><span style="color: blue;">silver</span></a> metal, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide" title="Iron(III) oxide"><span style="color: blue;">iron(III) oxide</span></a>, iron molybdenum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide"><span style="color: blue;">oxides</span></a>
[e.g. iron(III) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdate" title="Molybdate"><span style="color: blue;">molybdate</span></a>] with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum"><span style="color: blue;">molybdenum</span></a>-enriched surface or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium_pentoxide" title="Vanadium pentoxide"><span style="color: blue;">vanadium</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide"><span style="color: blue;">oxides</span></a>.
In the commonly used <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formox_process" title="Formox process"><span style="color: blue;">formox process</span></a>,
methanol and oxygen react at c. 250–400 °C in the presence of iron oxide
in combination with molybdenum and/or vanadium to produce formaldehyde
according to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation"><span style="color: blue;">chemical equation</span></a>:
</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">2 CH<sub>3</sub>OH + O<sub>2</sub> → 2 CH<sub>2</sub>O
+ 2 H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">The silver-based catalyst usually
operates at a higher temperature, about 650 °C. Two chemical reactions on
it simultaneously produce formaldehyde: shown above and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydrogenation" title="Dehydrogenation"><span style="color: blue;">dehydrogenation</span></a> reaction: </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">CH<sub>3</sub>OH → CH<sub>2</sub>O + H<sub>2</sub></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><sub><br /></sub></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In principle, formaldehyde could be
generated by oxidation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane" title="Methane"><span style="color: blue;">methane</span></a>, but this route is
not industrially viable because the methanol is more easily oxidized than
methane.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><b>In Biochemistry</b> - Formaldehyde is produced via
several enzyme-catalyzed routes. Living beings, including humans, produce
formaldehyde as part of their metabolism. Formaldehyde is key to several
bodily functions (e.g. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetic" title="Epigenetic"><span style="color: blue;">epigenetics</span></a>), but its
amount must also be tightly controlled to avoid self-poisoning.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Occurrence</span></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Processes in the upper <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere"><span style="color: blue;">atmosphere</span></a> contribute
up to 90% of the total formaldehyde in the environment. Formaldehyde is an
intermediate in the oxidation (or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion"><span style="color: blue;">combustion</span></a>) of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane" title="Methane"><span style="color: blue;">methane</span></a>, as well as of other carbon compounds,
e.g. in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_fire" title="Forest fire"><span style="color: blue;">forest fires</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile"><span style="color: blue;">automobile</span></a> exhaust, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoke" title="Tobacco smoke"><span style="color: blue;">tobacco smoke</span></a>. When produced in the atmosphere by
the action of sunlight and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span style="color: blue;">oxygen</span></a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane"><span style="color: blue;">atmospheric methane</span></a>
and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon"><span style="color: blue;">hydrocarbons</span></a>, it becomes
part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smog" title="Smog"><span style="color: blue;">smog</span></a>. Formaldehyde has also been detected in
outer space. </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde and its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adducts" title="Adducts"><span style="color: blue;">adducts</span></a> are ubiquitous in nature. Food may
contain formaldehyde at levels 1–100 mg/kg. Formaldehyde, formed in the
metabolism of the amino acids <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><span style="color: blue;">serine</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine"><span style="color: blue;">threonine</span></a>, is found in the bloodstream of humans
and other primates at concentrations of approximately 50 micromolar. </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde does not accumulate in
the environment, because it is broken down within a few hours by sunlight or by
bacteria present in soil or water. Humans metabolize formaldehyde quickly,
converting it to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid"><span style="color: blue;">formic acid</span></a>, so it does
not accumulate. It nonetheless presents <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde#Safety"><span style="color: blue;">significant health concerns</span></a>, as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminant" title="Contaminant"><span style="color: blue;">contaminant</span></a>.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde is classified as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen"><span style="color: blue;">carcinogen</span></a> (agents in the environment capable of contributing to cancer growth).
Additionally, it can cause respiratory and skin <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation"><span style="color: blue;">irritation</span></a> upon exposure.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Industrial applications</span></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde is a common precursor to more complex compounds
and materials. In approximate order of decreasing consumption, products
generated from formaldehyde include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea_formaldehyde_resin" title="Urea formaldehyde resin"><span style="color: blue;">urea formaldehyde
resin</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melamine_resin" title="Melamine resin"><span style="color: blue;">melamine resin</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenol_formaldehyde_resin" title="Phenol formaldehyde resin"><span style="color: blue;">phenol formaldehyde
resin</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyoxymethylene_plastic" title="Polyoxymethylene plastic"><span style="color: blue;">polyoxymethylene
plastics</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,4-butanediol" title="1,4-butanediol"><span style="color: blue;">1,4-butanediol</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylene_diphenyl_diisocyanate" title="Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate"><span style="color: blue;">methylene
diphenyl diisocyanate</span></a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry"><span style="color: blue;">textile industry</span></a> uses formaldehyde-based resins
as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finishing_(textiles)" title="Finishing (textiles)"><span style="color: blue;">finishers</span></a> to
make fabrics crease-resistant.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">When treated
with phenol, urea, or melamine, formaldehyde produces, respectively, hard
thermoset phenol formaldehyde resin, urea formaldehyde resin, and melamine
resin. These polymers are permanent adhesives used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood"><span style="color: blue;">plywood</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpet" title="Carpet"><span style="color: blue;">carpeting</span></a>. They are also foamed to make <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation"><span style="color: blue;">insulation</span></a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting" title="Casting"><span style="color: blue;">cast</span></a> into molded products. Production of
formaldehyde resins accounts for more than half of formaldehyde consumption.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Disinfectant and biocide</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">An aqueous solution of formaldehyde
can be useful as a disinfectant as it kills most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria"><span style="color: blue;">bacteria</span></a> and fungi (including their spores). It
is used as an additive in vaccine manufacturing to inactivate toxins and
pathogens. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde_releaser" title="Formaldehyde releaser"><span style="color: blue;">Formaldehyde releasers</span></a>
are used as biocides in personal care products such as cosmetics. Although
present at levels not normally considered harmful, they are known to cause
allergic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_dermatitis" title="Contact dermatitis"><span style="color: blue;">contact dermatitis</span></a>
in certain sensitized individuals. </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Aquarists use formaldehyde as a
treatment for the parasites <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyophthirius_multifiliis" title="Ichthyophthirius multifiliis"><span style="color: blue;">Ichthyophthirius
multifiliis</span></a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocaryon_irritans" title="Cryptocaryon irritans"><span style="color: blue;">Cryptocaryon irritans</span></a></i>.
Formaldehyde is one of the main disinfectants recommended for destroying <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax"><span style="color: blue;">anthrax</span></a>.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde
is also approved for use in the manufacture of animal feeds in the US. It is an
antimicrobial agent used to maintain complete animal feeds or feed ingredients <i>Salmonella</i>
negative for up to 21 days.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde
is commonly used to disinfect (via fumigating, sprinklers, and spray sleds)
poultry and swine confinement buildings, egg hatcheries, rooms, railway cars,
mushroom houses, tools, and equipment. Formaldehyde is a valuable packaged
preservative in the food and beverage industry.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Safety</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Because of its widespread use, toxicity, and volatility, formaldehyde poses a significant
danger to human health. In 2011, the US <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Toxicology_Program" title="National Toxicology Program"><span style="color: blue;">National
Toxicology Program</span></a> described formaldehyde as "known to be a
human carcinogen".</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Chronic inhalation</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">However,
concerns are associated with chronic (long-term) exposure by inhalation as may
happen from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_decomposition" title="Thermal decomposition"><span style="color: blue;">thermal</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition"><span style="color: blue;">chemical decomposition</span></a>
of formaldehyde-based resins and the production of formaldehyde resulting from
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion"><span style="color: blue;">combustion</span></a> of a variety of organic compounds (for
example, exhaust gases). As formaldehyde resins are used in many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_materials" title="Construction materials"><span style="color: blue;">construction materials</span></a>,
it is one of the more common indoor air <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutants" title="Pollutants"><span style="color: blue;">pollutants</span></a>. At concentrations above 0.1 ppm
in air, formaldehyde can irritate the eyes and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane"><span style="color: blue;">mucous membranes</span></a>. Formaldehyde inhaled at this
concentration may cause headaches, a burning sensation in the throat, and
difficulty breathing, and can trigger or aggravate asthma symptoms.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In the residential
environment, formaldehyde exposure comes from several routes; formaldehyde
can be emitted by treated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood" title="Wood"><span style="color: blue;">wood</span></a> products, such as plywood
or particle board, but it is produced by paints, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varnishes" title="Varnishes"><span style="color: blue;">varnishes</span></a>, floor finishes, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette"><span style="color: blue;">cigarette</span></a> smoking as well. In July 2016, the U.S.
EPA released a prepublication version of its final rule on Formaldehyde
Emission Standards for Composite Wood Products. These new rules impact
manufacturers, importers, distributors, and retailers of products containing
composite wood, including fiberboard, particleboard, and various laminated
products, who must comply with more stringent record-keeping and labeling
requirements.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In the building
environments, formaldehyde levels are affected by several factors. These
include the potency of formaldehyde-emitting products present, the ratio of the
surface area of emitting materials to volume of space, environmental factors,
product age, interactions with other materials, and ventilation conditions.
Formaldehyde is emitted from a variety of construction materials, furnishings, and
consumer products.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Other routes</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Formaldehyde
occurs naturally, and is "an essential intermediate in cellular metabolism
in mammals and humans." According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Chemistry_Council" title="American Chemistry Council"><span style="color: blue;">American Chemistry
Council</span></a>, "Formaldehyde is found in every living system—from
plants to animals to humans. It metabolizes quickly in the body, breaks down
rapidly, is not persistent, and does not accumulate in the body."</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In humans,
ingestion of as little as 30 milliliters (1.0 US fl oz) of 37%
formaldehyde solution can cause death. Other symptoms associated with ingesting
such a solution include gastrointestinal damage (vomiting, abdominal pain), and
systematic damage (dizziness). Testing for formaldehyde is done by blood and/or
urine by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry" title="Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry"><span style="color: blue;">gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry</span></a>. Other methods include infrared
detection, gas detector tubes, etc., of which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography"><span style="color: blue;">high-performance
liquid chromatography</span></a> is the most sensitive.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Contaminant in food</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Scandals have broken in both the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Indonesia_food_scare" title="2005 Indonesia food scare"><span style="color: blue;">2005 Indonesia food
scare</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Vietnam_food_scare" title="2007 Vietnam food scare"><span style="color: blue;">2007 Vietnam food
scare</span></a> regarding the addition of formaldehyde to foods to extend
shelf life. In 2011, after a four-year absence, Indonesian authorities found
foods with formaldehyde being sold in markets in a number of regions across the
country. In August 2011, at least at two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrefour" title="Carrefour"><span style="color: blue;">Carrefour</span></a> supermarkets, the Central <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta"><span style="color: blue;">Jakarta</span></a> Livestock and Fishery Sub-Department
found <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cendol" title="Cendol"><span style="color: blue;">cendol</span></a> containing 10 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts_per_million" title="Parts per million"><span style="color: blue;">parts per million</span></a> of formaldehyde. In 2014, the
owner of two noodle factories in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogor" title="Bogor"><span style="color: blue;">Bogor</span></a>, Indonesia, was arrested
for using formaldehyde in noodles. 50 kg of formaldehyde was confiscated.
Foods known to be contaminated included noodles, salted fish, and tofu. Chicken
and beer were also rumored to be contaminated. In some places, such as China, manufacturers
still use formaldehyde illegally as a preservative in foods, which exposes
people to formaldehyde ingestion. In the early 1900s, it was frequently added
by US milk plants to milk bottles as a method of pasteurization due to the lack
of knowledge and concern regarding formaldehyde's toxicity. </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In 2011 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhon_Ratchasima" title="Nakhon Ratchasima"><span style="color: blue;">Nakhon Ratchasima</span></a>, Thailand, truckloads of rotten
chicken were treated with formaldehyde for sale in which "a large
network", including 11 slaughterhouses run by a criminal gang, were
implicated. In 2012, 1 billion rupiah (almost US$100,000) of fish imported
from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><span style="color: blue;">Pakistan</span></a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batam" title="Batam"><span style="color: blue;">Batam</span></a>,
Indonesia, were found laced with formaldehyde. </span></div><div style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalin" title="Formalin"><span style="color: blue;">Formalin</span></a> contamination of foods has been reported
in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh"><span style="color: blue;">Bangladesh</span></a>, with stores and supermarkets selling
fruits, fishes, and vegetables that have been treated with formalin to keep
them fresh. However, in 2015, a <i>Formalin Control Bill</i> was passed in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatiyo_Sangshad" title="Jatiyo Sangshad"><span style="color: blue;">Parliament of Bangladesh</span></a> with a provision of
life-term imprisonment as the maximum punishment as well as a maximum fine of
2,000,000 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshi_taka" title="Bangladeshi taka"><span style="color: blue;">BDT</span></a> but not less
than 500,000 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshi_taka" title="Bangladeshi taka"><span style="color: blue;">BDT</span></a> for importing,
producing, or hoarding formalin without a license.</span></span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-24965425409738483012023-06-09T22:30:00.008+08:002024-02-03T20:44:08.436+08:00El Niño and La Niña anomaly couple is becoming stronger and longer in the 21st century, more droughts will appear around the globe<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>El Niño</b> (Spanish: <span class="ipa"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Spanish" title="Help:IPA/Spanish"><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span color="windowtext">[el ˈniɲo]</span></span></a></span>; <abbr title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'The
Boy') is the warm phase of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation"><span color="windowtext">El
Niño–Southern Oscillation</span></a> (ENSO) and is associated with a band of
warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean"><span color="windowtext">Pacific</span></a>, including the area off the Pacific
coast of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" title="South America"><span color="windowtext">South America</span></a>.
The ENSO is the cycle of warm and cold <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature"><span color="windowtext">sea surface
temperature</span></a> (SST) of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean.<br /></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">El Niño is
accompanied by high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure#Surface" title="Atmospheric pressure"><span color="windowtext">air pressure</span></a>
in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific. El Niño
phases are known to last close to four years; however, records demonstrate that
the cycles have lasted between two and seven years. During the development of
El Niño, rainfall develops between September–November.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The cool
phase of ENSO is (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language"><span color="windowtext">Spanish</span></a>: <i><span lang="ES"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" title="La Niña"><span color="windowtext">La Niña</span></a></span></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation"><span color="windowtext">lit.</span></a> 'The
Girl'), with SSTs in the eastern Pacific below average, and air pressure high in
the eastern Pacific and low in the western Pacific. La Niña
impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead
to intense storms in some places and droughts in others. The ENSO cycle,
including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and
rainfall.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">There is no
consensus whether <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change"><span color="windowtext">climate change</span></a>
will have any influence on the occurrence, strength or duration of El Niño
events, as research supports El Niño events becoming stronger, longer, shorter
and weaker. However, recent scholarship has found that climate change is
increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Typically,
this anomaly happens at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts
nine months to two years. The average period length is five years. When this
warming occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño
"conditions"; when its duration is longer, it is classified as an El
Niño "episode".</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">During
strong El Niño episodes, a secondary peak in sea surface temperature across the
far eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean sometimes follows the initial peak.<br /></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">El Niño
affects the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which as a
result can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><b>Socio-ecological Effects on Humanity and Nature</b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><span>The effects of El </span><span>Niño</span><span> are impacting humans everywhere in the world.
Impacts can now be observed on all continents and ocean regions,<sup id="cite_ref-189"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change#cite_note-189"></a></sup>
with low-latitude, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">less developed areas</a>
facing the greatest risk. Continual warming has potentially "severe,
pervasive and irreversible impacts" on people and ecosystems.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><span><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="line-height: 107%;">Economical effects</span><span style="line-height: 107%;"> </span></b><b>-
</b><span style="font-weight: normal;">When El Niño
conditions last for many months, extensive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_warming" title="Ocean warming">ocean warming</a> and the reduction in easterly
trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient-rich deep water, and its economic
effect on local fishing for an international market can be serious.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">More generally, El Niño can affect
commodity prices and the macroeconomy of different countries. It can constrain
the supply of rain-driven agricultural commodities; reduce agricultural output,
construction, and services activities; create food-price and generalised
inflation; and may trigger social unrest in commodity-dependent poor countries
that primarily rely on imported food.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><span class="mw-headline"><span color="windowtext">Health and social
impacts</span> </span><span class="mw-headline"><b><span color="windowtext" style="line-height: 107%;">- </span></b></span><span color="windowtext" style="font-weight: normal; line-height: 107%;">Extreme weather conditions related to
the El Niño cycle correlate with changes in the incidence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic"><span color="windowtext">epidemic</span></a> diseases. For example, the El Niño
cycle is associated with increased risks of some of the diseases transmitted by
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito"><span color="windowtext">mosquitoes</span></a>, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria"><span color="windowtext">malaria</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever"><span color="windowtext">dengue fever</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever"><span color="windowtext">Rift Valley fever</span></a>. Cycles of malaria in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India"><span color="windowtext">India</span></a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela"><span color="windowtext">Venezuela</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><span color="windowtext">Brazil</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia"><span color="windowtext">Colombia</span></a> have now been linked to El Niño.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><span color="windowtext" style="font-weight: normal; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><span color="windowtext" style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 107%;"><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span color="windowtext" style="font-weight: normal; line-height: 17.12px;">Extreme weather leads to injury and loss of life, young children are the most vulnerable to food shortages. Both children and older people are vulnerable to extreme heat, they assessed deaths from heat exposure in elderly people, increases in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea"><span color="windowtext">diarrhea</span></a> and childhood malnutrition.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span color="windowtext" style="font-weight: normal; line-height: 17.12px;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ENSO may be linked to civil conflicts. Scientists at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Earth_Institute" title="The Earth Institute"><span color="windowtext">The Earth Institute</span></a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University"><span color="windowtext">Columbia University</span></a>, having analyzed data from 1950 to 2004, suggest ENSO may have had a role in 21% of all civil conflicts since 1950, with the risk of annual civil conflict doubling from 3% to 6% in countries affected by ENSO during El Niño years relative to La Niña years.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span></div></span></span></div><p style="text-align: left;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span class="mw-headline"><span color="windowtext"><b>Ecological
consequences</b></span> </span><span class="mw-headline"><b><span color="windowtext" style="line-height: 107%;">- </span></b></span></span><span color="windowtext" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: medium;">During the 1982–83, 1997–98, and 2015–16
ENSO events, large extensions of tropical forests experienced a prolonged dry
period that resulted in widespread fires, and drastic changes in forest
structure and tree species composition in Amazonian and Bornean forests, but their
impacts do not restrict only vegetation, since declines in insect populations
were observed after extreme drought and terrible fires during El Niño 2015–16.</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span color="windowtext" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><span color="windowtext" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Most critically, global mass bleaching events were recorded in 1997-98 and 2015–16, when around 75-99% losses of live coral were registered across the world. Considerable attention was also given to the collapse of Peruvian and Chilean anchovy populations that led to a severe fishery crisis following the ENSO events in 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98, and, more recently, in 2015–16.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><span color="windowtext" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><b>Climate change is a major influence for a more permanent ENSO state</b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In common
usage, <b>climate change</b> describes <b>global warming</b>—the ongoing
increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system"><span color="windowtext">climate system</span></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change"><span color="windowtext">Climate
change in a broader sense</span></a> also includes previous long-term changes
to Earth's climate. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" title="Instrumental temperature record"><span color="windowtext">current
rise in global average temperature</span></a> is more rapid than previous
changes and is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change"><span color="windowtext">primarily
caused by humans</span></a> burning <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel"><span color="windowtext">fossil fuels</span></a>. Fossil fuel use, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation"><span color="windowtext">deforestation</span></a>, and some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture"><span color="windowtext">agricultural</span></a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete"><span color="windowtext">industrial</span></a>
practices <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions"><span color="windowtext">increase</span></a>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas"><span color="windowtext">greenhouse gases</span></a>, notably <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span color="windowtext">carbon dioxide</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions"><span color="windowtext">methane</span></a>. Greenhouse gases <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect"><span color="windowtext">absorb some of the heat</span></a> that the Earth
radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget#Earth's_energy_imbalance" title="Earth's energy budget"><span color="windowtext">trap more heat</span></a>
in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Due to
climate change, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification"><span color="windowtext">deserts are expanding</span></a>,
while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave"><span color="windowtext">heat waves</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire"><span color="windowtext">wildfires</span></a> are becoming more common. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_amplification" title="Polar amplification"><span color="windowtext">Increased warming in
the Arctic</span></a> has contributed to melting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost"><span color="windowtext">permafrost</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850"><span color="windowtext">glacial
retreat</span></a> and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change"><span color="windowtext">more
intense storms</span></a>, droughts, and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather"><span color="windowtext">weather extremes</span></a>. Rapid environmental
change in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montane_ecosystems" title="Montane ecosystems"><span color="windowtext">mountains</span></a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef"><span color="windowtext">coral reefs</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic"><span color="windowtext">the Arctic</span></a>
is forcing many species to relocate or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change"><span color="windowtext">become
extinct</span></a>. Even if efforts to minimize future warming are successful,
some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change"><span color="windowtext">effects</span></a>
will continue for centuries. These include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_temperature#Increasing_temperature_due_to_climate_change" title="Ocean temperature"><span color="windowtext">ocean heating</span></a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification"><span color="windowtext">ocean acidification</span></a>
and </span><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise"><span color="windowtext">sea level rise</span></a>.</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Climate change <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health"><span color="windowtext">threatens
people</span></a> with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture"><span color="windowtext">food</span></a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity#Climate_change" title="Water scarcity"><span color="windowtext">water</span></a>
scarcity, more disease, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impacts_of_climate_change" title="Economic impacts of climate change"><span color="windowtext">economic
loss</span></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_migrant" title="Environmental migrant"><span color="windowtext">Human migration</span></a>
and conflict can also be a result. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization"><span color="windowtext">World Health
Organization</span></a> (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to
global health in the 21st century. Societies and ecosystems will experience
more severe risks without <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation"><span color="windowtext">action to
limit warming</span></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation"><span color="windowtext">Adapting to
climate change</span></a> through efforts like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control" title="Flood control"><span color="windowtext">flood control</span></a> measures or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerophyte" title="Xerophyte"><span color="windowtext">drought-resistant crops</span></a> partially reduces
climate change risks, although some limits to adaptation have already been
reached. Poorer countries are responsible for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice"><span color="windowtext">a small share of global emissions</span></a>, yet have
the least ability to adapt and are most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability"><span color="windowtext">vulnerable
to climate change</span></a>.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Many climate
change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) level
of warming. Additional warming will increase these impacts and can trigger <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system"><span color="windowtext">tipping
points</span></a>, such as the melting of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet"><span color="windowtext">Greenland ice sheet</span></a>.
Under the 2015 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement"><span color="windowtext">Paris Agreement</span></a>,
nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C".
However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still
reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting
warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving
net-zero emissions by 2050.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><b>More frequent El Niño and La Niña droughts</b></span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">A <b>drought</b>
is a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0"> </sup>
A drought can last for days, months or years. Drought often has large impacts
on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem"><span color="windowtext">ecosystems</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture"><span color="windowtext">agriculture</span></a> of affected regions, and causes
harm to the local <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy" title="Economy"><span color="windowtext">economy</span></a>. Annual dry
seasons in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics"><span color="windowtext">tropics</span></a> significantly increase the chances
of a drought developing and subsequent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire"><span color="windowtext">wildfires</span></a>. Periods of heat can
significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapour" title="Water vapour"><span color="windowtext">water vapour</span></a>.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Drought is a
recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world, becoming more
extreme and less predictable due to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change"><span color="windowtext">climate change</span></a>, which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronological" title="Dendrochronological"><span color="windowtext">dendrochronological</span></a>
studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects,
environmental, economic and social. Environmental effects include the drying of
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland"><span color="windowtext">wetlands</span></a>, more and larger wildfires, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss"><span color="windowtext">loss of biodiversity</span></a>. Economic consequences
include disruption of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply"><span color="windowtext">water supplies</span></a>
for municipal economies; lower agricultural, forest, game, and fishing outputs;
higher food-production costs; and problems with water supply for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_industry" title="Energy industry"><span color="windowtext">energy sector</span></a>. Social and health costs
include the negative effect on the health of people directly exposed to this
phenomenon (excessive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave"><span color="windowtext">heat waves</span></a>), high
food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity"><span color="windowtext">water scarcity</span></a>, etc. Prolonged droughts
have caused <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_migration" title="Mass migration"><span color="windowtext">mass migrations</span></a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_crisis" title="Humanitarian crisis"><span color="windowtext">humanitarian crisis</span></a>.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">The
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">El Niño–Southern
Oscillation</span></a> (ENSO) phenomenon can sometimes play a significant role
in drought. ENSO comprises two patterns of temperature anomalies in the central
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Pacific Ocean</span></a>, known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" title="La Niña"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">La Niña</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" title="El Niño"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">El Niño</span></a>. La Niña events are generally associated
with drier and hotter conditions and further exacerbation of drought in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droughts_in_California" title="Droughts in California"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">California</span></a>
and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Southwestern United
States</span></a>, and to some extent the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">U.S. Southeast</span></a>.
Meteorological scientists have observed that La Niñas have become more frequent
over time. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Conversely,
during El Niño events, drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Amazon River</span></a> Basin, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Colombia</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Central America</span></a>. Winters during the El Niño are
warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest,
and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced
snowfalls.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Direct
effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia"><span color="windowtext">Southeast Asia</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Australia" title="Northern Australia"><span color="windowtext">Northern Australia</span></a>,
increasing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_fire" title="Bush fire"><span color="windowtext">bush fires</span></a>, worsening <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haze" title="Haze"><span color="windowtext">haze</span></a>,
and decreasing air quality dramatically.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Drought is a complex
phenomenon − relating to the absence of water − which is difficult to monitor
and define. By the early 1980's, over 150 definitions of "drought"
had already been published. The range of definitions reflects differences in
regions, needs, and disciplinary approaches.</span></span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-60880003946694660062023-05-03T03:00:00.004+08:002024-02-03T20:34:19.090+08:00“Noble Orient” Gum arabic in food as a safe thickener, emulsifier and stabilizer. Can it be save to desert locust upsurges swarm?<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"">Gum arabic</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif""> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gum" title="Natural gum">natural
gum</a> originally consisting of the hardened <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">sap</a> of two species of
the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_sensu_lato" title="Acacia sensu lato">Acacia</a></i> tree, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalia_senegal" title="Senegalia senegal">Senegalia
senegal</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vachellia_seyal" title="Vachellia seyal">Vachellia seyal</a>.</i> <b><i>Senegalia senegal</i></b>
(also known as <i>Acacia senegal</i>) is a small <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorn_(botany)" title="Thorn (botany)">thorny</a>
deciduous tree from the genus <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalia" title="Senegalia">Senegalia</a></i>,
which is known by several common names, including <b>gum acacia</b>, <b>gum
arabic tree</b>, <b>Sudan gum</b> and <b>Sudan gum arabic</b>. In parts of
India, it is known as <b>Kher</b> or <b>Khor</b>. It is native to semi-desert
regions of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, as well as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and
west coastal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.
It grows to a height of 5–12 metres (16-40'), with a trunk up to 30 cm
(1') in diameter. <i>Sudan</i> is the source of the world's highest quality <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_arabic" title="Gum arabic">gum arabic</a>,
known locally as <b>hashab gum</b> in contrast to the related, but inferior,
gum arabic from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vachellia_seyal" title="Vachellia seyal">Red acacia</a> or talah gum. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"">The term
"gum arabic" does not legally indicate a particular botanical source,
however.</span> <span face=""Arial","sans-serif"">The gum is
harvested commercially from wild trees, mostly in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> (80%) and
throughout the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>,
from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>
to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>. The
gum is drained from cuts in the bark, and an individual tree will yield 200 to
300 grams (7 to 10 oz). The name "gum Arabic" (<i>al-samgh al-'arabi</i>)
was used in the Middle East at least as early as the 9th century. Gum arabic first
found its way to Europe via Arabic ports, so retained its name.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif""><span style="font-family: arial;">Gum arabic is
a complex <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a>
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, predominantly polymers of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabinose" title="Arabinose">arabinose</a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a>.
It is soluble in water, edible, and used primarily in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">food
industry</a> and soft-drink industry as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)" title="Stabilizer (chemistry)">stabilizer</a>, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number" title="E number">E number</a>
E414 (I414 in the US). Gum arabic is a key ingredient in traditional <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a>
and is used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paints</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glue" title="Glue">glues</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetics</a>,
and various industrial applications, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>
control in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a> and
in textile industries, though less expensive materials compete with it for many
of these roles.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Health benefits</span></b></h2><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Gum arabic is
a rich source of dietary fibers and in addition to its widespread use in food
and pharmaceutical industries as a safe thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer,
it also possesses a broad range of health benefits that have been evidently
proved through several <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i> studies. Gum arabic
is not degraded in the stomach but fermented in the large intestine into a
number of short chain fatty acids. It is regarded as a prebiotic that enhances
the growth and proliferation of the beneficial intestinal microbiota and
therefore its intake is associated with many useful health effects. These health
benefits include:</span></p>
<p style="text-align: left;"></p><p></p><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Improved absorption of calcium
from the gastrointestinal tract</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Anti-diabetic</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Anti-obesity (gum arabic lowers
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> and body fat percentage)</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Lipid lowering potential (gum arabic
decreases total cholesterol, LDL, and triglyceride)</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Antioxidant activities</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kidney and liver support</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Immune function <i>via</i>
modulating the release of some inflammatory mediators</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Prebiotic improving the
intestinal barrier function, preventing colon cancer, and alleviating
symptoms of irritable bowel diseases</span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In rats, a protective effect on
the intestine against the adverse actions of the NSAID drug <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meloxicam" title="Meloxicam">meloxicam</a></span></li></ul><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Various
Uses</span></b></h2>
<p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Gum
arabic's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a>
of polysaccharides and glycoproteins gives it the properties of a glue and
binder that is edible by humans. Other substances have replaced it where <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> is
not an issue, as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic vary
widely and make it unpredictable. Still, it remains an important ingredient in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_drink" title="Soft drink">soft drink</a>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrup" title="Syrup">syrup</a> and
"hard" gummy candies such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumdrop" title="Gumdrop">gumdrops</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshmallow" title="Marshmallow">marshmallows</a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%26M%27s" title="M&M's">M&M's</a>
chocolate candies. For <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist" title="Artist">artists</a>, it is the traditional <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">binder</a>
in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watercolor" title="Watercolor">watercolor</a>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paint</a> and in
photography for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">gum printing</a>, and it is used as a binder in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrotechnic" title="Pyrotechnic">pyrotechnic</a>
compositions. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" title="Pharmaceutical drug">Pharmaceutical drugs</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetics</a>
also use the gum as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excipient#Binders" title="Excipient">binder</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsifier" title="Emulsifier">emulsifier</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suspending_agent&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Suspending agent (page does not exist)">suspending agent</a> or
viscosity-increasing agent.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">It
is an important ingredient in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoe_polish" title="Shoe polish">shoe
polish</a>, and can be used in making homemade incense cones. It is also used
as a lickable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">adhesive</a>,
for example on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamp_gum" title="Postage stamp gum">postage stamps</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelopes" title="Envelopes">envelopes</a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette_papers" title="Cigarette papers">cigarette papers</a>. Lithographic printers employ it
to keep the non-image areas of the plate receptive to water. This treatment
also helps to stop <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>
plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing
press</a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Production</span></b></h2>
<p><span style="font-family: arial;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">While
gum arabic has been harvested in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabia" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> since antiquity, sub-Saharan acacia gum has a
long history as a prized export. The gum exported came from the band of acacia
trees that once covered much of the Sahel region, the southern littoral of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Desert" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara
Desert</a> that runs from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic
Ocean</a> to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red
Sea</a>. Today, the main populations of gum-producing <i>Acacia</i> species are
found in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina
Faso</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>,
Sudan, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>. <i>Acacia</i>
is tapped for gum by stripping bits off the bark, from which gum then exudes.
Traditionally harvested by seminomadic desert pastoralists in the course of
their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">transhumance</a>
cycle, acacia gum remains a main export of several African nations, including
Mauritania, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. In Sudan hundreds of thousands of Sudanese
people are dependent on gum arabic for their livelihoods. After market reforms
total world gum arabic Sudan’s exports are today (2019) estimated at 160,000
tonnes, the production of gum arabic is heavily controlled by the Sudanese
government</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Desert
locust plagues and potential upsurges swarm invasions</span></b></p>
<p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
<b>desert locust</b> (<b><i>Schistocerca gregaria</i></b>) is a species of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">locust</a>, a
periodically swarming, short-horned grasshopper in the family <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrididae" title="Acrididae">Acrididae</a>.
They are found primarily in the deserts and dry areas of northern and eastern
Africa, Arabia, and southwest Asia.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">During
plague years, desert locusts can cause widespread damage to crops, as they are
highly mobile and feed on large quantities of any kind of green vegetation,
including crops, pasture, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">fodder</a>. A typical swarm can be made up of 150 million
locusts per square kilometre (390,000,000 per square mile) and fly in the
direction of the prevailing wind up to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in one day.
Even a very small, 1-square-kilometre (0.39 sq mi) locust swarm can
eat the same amount of food in a day as about 35,000 people. They have two to
five generations per year. The desert locust risk increases with a
one-to-two-year continuum of favourable weather (greater frequency of rains)
and habitats that support population increases leading to upsurges and plagues.
The locust can live between 3 and 6 months, and a 10- to 16-fold increase in
locust numbers occurs from one generation to the next. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: arial;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Desert
locusts consume an estimated equivalent of their body weight (2 g
(0.07 oz)) each day in green vegetation. They are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours#By_food_type" title="List of feeding behaviours">polyphagous</a> and feed on leaves, shoots,
flowers, fruit, seeds, stems, and bark. Nearly all crops and noncrop plants are
eaten, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_millet" title="Pearl millet">pearl millet</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, pasture grasses,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, fruit
trees, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">date
palms</a>, banana plants, vegetables, and weeds.</span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
desert locust is a difficult pest to control, and control measures are further
compounded by the large and often remote areas (16–30 million square
kilometres (6.2–11.6 million square miles)) where locusts can be found.
Undeveloped basic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> in some affected countries, limited
resources for locust monitoring and control, and political turmoil within and
between affected countries further reduce the capacity of a country to
undertake the necessary monitoring and control activities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In
May 2018, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Mekunu" title="Cyclone Mekunu">Cyclone Mekunu</a> brought unprecedented rainfall to the
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_Quarter" title="Empty Quarter">Empty
Quarter</a> of the Arabian Peninsula that was followed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Luban" title="Cyclone Luban">Cyclone
Luban</a> that brought heavy rains again to the same area in October. This
allowed conditions to be favourable for three generations of breeding, which
caused an estimated 8,000-fold increase in Desert Locust numbers that went
unchecked because the area was so remote it could not be accessed by national
locust teams. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">In early 2019, waves
of swarms migrated from this remote and inaccessible area north to the interior
of Saudi Arabia and southern Iran, and southwest to the interior of Yemen. Both
areas received good rains, including heavy flooding in southwest Iran (the
worst in 50 years), that allowed another two generations of breeding to take
place. While control operations were mounted against the northern movement and
subsequent breeding, very little could be done in Yemen and Sudan due to the ongoing
conflict. As a result, new swarms formed that crossed the southern Red Sea and
the Gulf of Aden and invaded the Horn of Africa, specifically northeast
Ethiopia and northern Somalia in June 2019. Again, good rains allowed further
breeding during the summer, followed by another generation of widespread
breeding during the autumn in eastern Ethiopia and central Somalia, which was
exacerbated by the unusually late occurring <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Pawan" title="Cyclone Pawan">Cyclone
Pawan</a> in northeast Somalia in early December. The swarms that subsequently
formed invaded Kenya in late December 2019 and spread throughout the country
where they bred in between the rainy seasons because of unusual rainfall. Kenya
had only witnessed swarm invasions twice in the past 75 years (1955 and 2007).
Some swarms also invaded Uganda, South Sudan, Tanzania and one swarmlet reached
northeast D.R. Congo, the first time since 1945. As of 1 April 2022
there are no locust crises anywhere in the world but swarms are expected in
October in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%E2%80%93Pakistan_border" title="India–Pakistan border">India–Pakistan border</a></span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-38643178042098714492023-04-03T05:55:00.002+08:002023-07-13T01:45:01.952+08:00AGI in FLOSS can reverse engineering to be unkind if in the wrong hands, different proactive cyber defence approach is needed<p><b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Free and
open-source software</span></b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (<b>FOSS</b>)
is a term used to refer to groups of software consisting of both </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">free
software</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">open-source software</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> where anyone is </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_license" title="Open-source license"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">freely licensed</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> to use, copy, study, and change the software in any
way, and the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">source code</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily
improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">proprietary software</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, where the software is under restrictive </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">copyright</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensing" title="Licensing"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">licensing</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and the source code is usually hidden
from the users.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">FOSS maintains the
software user's civil liberty rights. Other benefits of using FOSS can include
decreased software costs, increased </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_(computing)" title="Security (computing)"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">security</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and stability (especially in regard to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" title="Malware"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">malware</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">), protecting </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">privacy</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, education, and giving users more control over
their own hardware. Free and open-source operating systems such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" title="Linux"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Linux</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and descendants of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD" title="BSD"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">BSD</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are widely utilized today, powering
millions of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">servers</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">desktops</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, smartphones (e.g., </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Android</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">), and other devices. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-software_license" title="Free-software license"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Free-software licenses</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_license" title="Open-source license"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">open-source licenses</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are used by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open-source_software_packages" title="List of open-source software packages"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">many software packages</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. The </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">free software movement</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software_movement" title="Open-source software movement"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">open-source software movement</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_social_movement" title="Online social movement"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">online social movements</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> behind widespread production and adoption
of FOSS, with the former preferring to use the terms </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_terms_for_free_software#FLOSS" title="Alternative terms for free software"><b><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">FLOSS</span></b></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or free/libre.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Security and
user-support<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus%27s_law" title="Linus's law"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Linus's law</span></a> the
more people who can see and test a set of code, the more likely any flaws will
be caught and fixed quickly. However, this does not guarantee a high level of
participation. Having a grouping of full-time professionals behind a commercial
product can in some cases be superior to FOSS.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Furthermore, publicized source code might make it easier for
hackers to find vulnerabilities in it and write exploits. This however assumes
that such malicious hackers are more effective than <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_hat_(computing)" title="White hat (computing)"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">white hat hackers</span></a> which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_disclosure" title="Responsible disclosure"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">responsibly disclose</span></a> or help fix the
vulnerabilities, that no code leaks or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_breach" title="Data breach"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">exfiltrations</span></a> occur
and that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">reverse engineering</span></a> of proprietary code is
a hindrance of significance for malicious hackers.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Hardware and software
compatibility<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Sometimes, FOSS is not
compatible with proprietary hardware or specific software. This is often due to
manufacturers obstructing FOSS such as by not disclosing the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">interfaces</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or other specifications needed for members of the FOSS movement to
write </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver"><span style="background: white; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">drivers</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> for their hardware - for instance as they wish customers to run
only their own proprietary software or as they might benefit from partnerships.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Bugs and missing
features<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">While FOSS can be superior
to proprietary equivalents in terms of software features and stability, in many
cases it has more unfixed bugs and missing features when compared to similar
commercial software. This varies per case, and usually depends on the
level of interest in a particular project. However, unlike close-sourced
software, improvements can be made by anyone who has the motivation, time and
skill to do so<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;">Future AI might possess Superintelligence
agent<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Artificial intelligence</span></b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (<b>AI</b>) is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">intelligence</span></a> demonstrated
by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" title="Machine"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">machines</span></a>,
as opposed to intelligence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">humans</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">other animals</span></a>.
Example tasks in which this is done include speech recognition, computer
vision, translation between (natural) languages, as well as other mappings of
inputs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_applications" title="AI applications"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">AI applications</span></a> include advanced <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_search" title="Web search"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">web search</span></a> engines
(e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Search" title="Google Search"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Google Search</span></a>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">recommendation systems</span></a> (used by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">YouTube</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)" title="Amazon (company)"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Amazon</span></a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix" title="Netflix"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Netflix</span></a>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-language_understanding" title="Natural-language understanding"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">understanding human speech</span></a> (such
as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Siri</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Alexa" title="Amazon Alexa"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Alexa</span></a>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_car" title="Self-driving car"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">self-driving
cars</span></a> (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waymo" title="Waymo"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Waymo</span></a>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_artificial_intelligence" title="Generative artificial intelligence"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">generative</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_creativity" title="Computational creativity"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">creative</span></a> tools (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatGPT" title="ChatGPT"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">ChatGPT</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_art" title="AI art"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">AI art</span></a>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making" title="Automated decision-making"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">automated decision-making</span></a>, and competing
at the highest level in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_game" title="Strategic game"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">strategic game</span></a> systems
(such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess" title="Chess"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">chess</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)" title="Go (game)"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Go</span></a>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 3;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt;">Superintelligence<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A superintelligence,
hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence, is a hypothetical agent that
would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted
human mind. <i>Superintelligence</i> may also refer to the form or
degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">If research into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_general_intelligence" title="Artificial general intelligence"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">artificial general intelligence</span></a> produced
sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve
itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading
to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_explosion" title="Intelligence explosion"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">recursive self-improvement</span></a>. Its
intelligence would increase exponentially in an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_explosion" title="Intelligence explosion"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">intelligence explosion</span></a> and could
dramatically surpass humans. Science fiction writer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernor_Vinge" title="Vernor Vinge"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Vernor Vinge</span></a> named
this scenario the "singularity". Because it is difficult or
impossible to know the limits of intelligence or the capabilities of
superintelligent machines, the technological singularity is an occurrence
beyond which events are unpredictable or even unfathomable.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Bad actors and
weaponized AI<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">AI provides a number
of tools that are particularly useful for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian" title="Authoritarian"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">authoritarian</span></a> governments:
smart <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware" title="Spyware"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">spyware</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_recognition_system" title="Facial recognition system"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">face recognition</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_recognition" title="Speaker recognition"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">voice recognition</span></a> allow widespread <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">surveillance</span></a>;
such surveillance allows <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">machine learning</span></a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classifier_(machine_learning)" title="Classifier (machine learning)"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">classify</span></a> potential enemies of the
state and can prevent them from hiding; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">recommendation systems</span></a> can precisely
target <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">propaganda</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">misinformation</span></a> for
maximum effect; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepfakes" title="Deepfakes"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">deepfakes</span></a> aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI
can make <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">centralized decision making</span></a> more competitive with liberal
and decentralized systems such as markets. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terrorists, criminals and rogue states may use other forms of
weaponized AI such as advanced <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_warfare" title="Digital warfare"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">digital warfare</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethal_autonomous_weapon" title="Lethal autonomous weapon"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">lethal autonomous weapons</span></a>. By 2015, over
fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Existential risk<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintelligent" title="Superintelligent"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Superintelligent</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> AI may be able to improve itself to the point that
humans could not control it. This could, as physicist </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Stephen Hawking</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> puts it, "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">spell the end of the human race</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">". Philosopher </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" title="Nick Bostrom"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Nick Bostrom</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> argues that sufficiently intelligent AI, if it chooses
actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_convergence" title="Instrumental convergence"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">convergent</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> behavior
such as acquiring resources or protecting itself from being shut down. If this
AI's goals do not fully reflect humanity's, it might need to harm humanity to
acquire more resources or prevent itself from being shut down, ultimately to
better achieve its goal. He concludes that AI poses a risk to mankind, however
humble or "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_AI" title="Friendly AI"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">friendly</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">" its stated goals might be. Political
scientist </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_T._Rubin" title="Charles T. Rubin"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Charles
T. Rubin</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> argues that "any sufficiently
advanced benevolence may be indistinguishable from malevolence." Humans
should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is
no <i>a priori</i> reason to believe that they would share our system
of morality<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt;">Reverse engineering in
source code can change future war<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reverse engineering</span></b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (also known as <b>backwards engineering</b> or <b>back
engineering</b>) is a process or method through which one attempts to
understand through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">deductive reasoning</span></a> how a previously made
device, process, system, or piece of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">software</span></a> accomplishes
a task with very little (if any) insight into exactly how it does so. It is
essentially the process of opening up or dissecting a system to see how it
works, in order to duplicate or enhance it. Depending on the system under
consideration and the technologies employed, the knowledge gained during
reverse engineering can help with repurposing obsolete objects, doing security
analysis, or learning how something works. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Although the process is specific to the object on which it is
being performed, all reverse engineering processes consist of three basic
steps: Information extraction, Modeling, and Review. Information extraction
refers to the practice of gathering all relevant information for performing the
operation. Modeling refers to the practice of combining the gathered
information into an abstract model, which can be used as a guide for designing
the new object or system. Review refers to the testing of the model to ensure
the validity of the chosen abstract.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05in; mso-outline-level: 3;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt;">Military applications<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Reverse
engineering is often used by people to copy other nations' technologies,
devices, or information that have been obtained by regular troops in the fields
or by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">intelligence</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> operations. It was often used during the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War" title="Second World War"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Second World War</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Cold War</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Here are well-known examples from the Second World War and
later:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzerschreck" title="Panzerschreck"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Panzerschreck</span></a>:
The Germans captured an American <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">bazooka</span></a> during
the Second World War and reverse engineered it to create the larger
Panzerschreck.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-4" title="Tupolev Tu-4"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Tupolev Tu-4</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">: In 1944, three American </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-29_Superfortress" title="B-29 Superfortress"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">B-29</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> bombers on missions over </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Japan</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> were forced to land in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">Soviet Union</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">. The Soviets, who did not have a similar strategic bomber,
decided to copy the B-29. Within three years, they had developed the Tu-4, a
nearly-perfect copy.</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2" title="V-2"><span style="color: #3366cc;">V-2</span></a> rocket: Technical documents for the
V-2 and related technologies were captured by the Western Allies at the end of
the war. The Americans focused their reverse engineering efforts via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip"><span style="color: #3366cc;">Operation Paperclip</span></a>,
which led to the development of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGM-11_Redstone" title="PGM-11 Redstone"><span style="color: #3366cc;">PGM-11 Redstone</span></a> rocket. The Soviets
used captured German engineers to reproduce technical documents and plans and
worked from captured hardware to make their clone of the rocket, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-1_(missile)" title="R-1 (missile)"><span style="color: #3366cc;">R-1</span></a>. Thus began the postwar Soviet rocket
program, which led to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka"><span style="color: #3366cc;">R-7</span></a> and the beginning of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_race" title="Space race"><span style="color: #3366cc;">space race</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">China has </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Intellectual property in the People's Republic of China"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">reversed engineered
many examples</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of Western and Russian hardware, from
fighter aircraft to missiles and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMMWV" title="HMMWV"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">HMMWV</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> cars, such as the MiG-15,17,19,21 (which became the
J-2,5,6,7) and the Su-33 (which became the J-15). More recent analyses of
China's military growth have pointed to the inherent limitations of habitual
reverse engineering for advanced weapon systems.</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">During the Second World War, British scientists analyzed and
defeated a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Beams" title="Battle of the Beams"><span style="color: #3366cc;">series of
increasingly-sophisticated radio navigation systems</span></a> used by
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe"><span style="color: #3366cc;">Luftwaffe</span></a> to perform guided bombing
missions at night. The British countermeasures to the system were so effective
that in some cases, German aircraft were led by signals to land at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF" title="RAF"><span style="color: #3366cc;">RAF</span></a> bases
since they believed that they had returned to German territory.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"><b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Proactive cyber defence is the highest priority<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Proactive cyber defence</span></b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> means acting in anticipation to oppose an attack through
cyber and cognitive domains. Proactive cyber defence can be understood as
options between offensive and defensive measures. It includes interdicting,
disrupting or deterring an attack or a threat's preparation to attack, either
pre-emptively or in self-defence. Common methods include cyber deception, attribution,
threat hunting and adversarial pursuit. The mission of the pre-emptive and
proactive operations is to conduct aggressive interception and disruption
activities against an adversary using: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_operations" title="Psychological operations"><span style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;">psychological operations</span></a>, managed
information dissemination, precision targeting, information warfare operations,
computer network exploitation, and other active threat reduction measures. The
proactive defense strategy is meant to improve information collection by
stimulating reactions of the threat agents and to provide strike options as
well as to enhance operational preparation of the real or virtual battlespace.
Proactive cyber defence can be a measure for detecting and obtaining
information before a cyber attack, or it can also be impending cyber operation
and be determining the origin of an operation that involves launching a
pre-emptive, preventive, or cyber counter-operation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">The offensive capacity
includes the manipulation and/or disruption of networks and systems with the
purpose of limiting or eliminating the adversary's operational capability. This
capability can be required to guarantee one's freedom of action in the cyber
domain. Cyber-attacks can be launched to repel an attack (active defence) or to
support the operational action. Proactive cyber defence differs from active
defence, meaning that it is pre-emptive (not waiting for an attack to occur).
The distinction between active cyber defence and offensive cyber operations
(OCO) is that the later requires legislative exceptions to undertake. Hence,
offensive cyber capabilities may be developed in collaboration with industry
and facilitated by private sector. But, these operations are often led by
nation-states.</span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-67616773698361695222022-12-08T15:00:00.004+08:002023-03-31T21:59:59.947+08:005G Networks and its new cutting edge in networks technology applications enabler. Can it be using to treated cancer and increase blood flow?<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 24pt; line-height: 107%;">I</span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">n</span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">telecommunications</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, 5G is
the fifth-</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mobile_phone_generations" title="List of mobile phone generations"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">generation</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">technology
standard</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> for </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband" title="Broadband"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">broadband</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cellular networks</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_network_operator" title="Mobile network operator"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cellular phone
companies</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> began deploying
worldwide in 2019, and is the planned successor to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G" title="4G"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">4G</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> networks which
provide connectivity to most current </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellphone" title="Cellphone"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cellphones</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. 5G networks are predicted to have more than 1.7 billion
subscribers and account for 25% of the worldwide mobile technology market by
2025, according to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSMA" title="GSMA"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">GSM Association</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statista" title="Statista"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Statista</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">.</span><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Like its predecessors, 5G
networks are </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cellular networks</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, in which the service area is divided into
small geographical areas called <i>cells</i>. All 5G wireless devices in a
cell are connected to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Internet</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_network" title="Telephone network"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">telephone network</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">radio waves</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> through a local </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">antenna</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> in the cell. The new networks have higher </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download_speed" title="Download speed"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">download speeds</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, eventually up to 10 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabits_per_second" title="Gigabits per second"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">gigabits per
second</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (Gbit/s). In
addition to 5G being faster than existing networks, 5G has higher bandwidth and
can thus connect more different devices, improving the quality of Internet
services in crowded areas. Due to the increased bandwidth, it is expected
the networks will increasingly be used as general </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">internet
service providers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (ISPs)
for laptops and desktop computers, competing with existing ISPs such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_internet" title="Cable internet"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cable internet</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and also will make possible new applications
in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">internet-of-things</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (IoT), Telematics and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_to_machine" title="Machine to machine"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">machine-to-machine</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> areas. Cellphones with 4G capability
alone are not able to use the 5G networks. </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">5G networks is
expected to support up to a million devices per square kilometer. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The industry consortium setting standards for 5G, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Generation_Partnership_Project" title="3rd Generation Partnership Project"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">3rd
Generation Partnership Project</span></a> (3GPP), defines "5G"
as any system using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G_NR" title="5G NR"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">5G NR</span></a> (5G
New Radio) software<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">, and the specification is
subdivided into two frequency bands, FR1 (below 6 GHz) and FR2
(24–54 GHz).</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">5G can be implemented in
low-band, mid-band, or high-band millimeter-wave 24 GHz up to 54 GHz.
Low-band 5G uses a similar frequency range to 4G cellphones, 600–900 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz" title="Megahertz"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">MHz</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, giving download speeds a little higher than 4G: 30–250 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabits_per_second" title="Megabits per second"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">megabits per
second</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (Mbit/s). Low-band </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_tower" title="Cell tower"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cell towers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> have a range and coverage area similar to 4G towers.
Mid-band 5G uses </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwaves" title="Microwaves"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">microwaves</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of 1.7–4.7 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigahertz" title="Gigahertz"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">GHz</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, allowing speeds of 100–900 Mbit/s, with each cell tower providing
service up to several kilometers in radius. This level of service is the most
widely deployed and was deployed in many metropolitan areas in 2020. Some
regions are not implementing the low band, making Mid-band the minimum service
level. High-band 5G uses frequencies of 24–47 GHz, near the bottom of the
millimeter wave band, although higher frequencies may be used in the future. It
often achieves download speeds in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabits_per_second" title="Gigabits per second"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">gigabit-per-second</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (Gbit/s) range, comparable to cable
internet. However, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimeter_wave" title="Millimeter wave"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">millimeter waves</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (mmWave or mmW) have a more limited
range, requiring many small cells. Small cells are low-powered cellular
radio access nodes that operate in licensed and unlicensed spectrums that have a
range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells are critical to 5G
networks, as 5G's radio waves can't travel long distances, because of 5G's
higher frequencies, 5G signals cannot penetrate solid objects easily, such as
cars, trees, walls, and even humans, because of the nature of these higher
frequency electromagnetic waves</span>. Due to their higher cost, plans are to
deploy these cells only in dense urban environments and areas where crowds of
people congregate such as sports stadiums and convention centers. In
applications area, 5G technology will connect some of the 50 billion connected
IoT devices. Most will use the less expensive Wi-Fi. Drones, transmitting
via 4G or 5G, will aid in disaster recovery efforts, providing real-time data
for emergency responders. Most cars will have a 4G or 5G cellular
connection for many services. Autonomous cars do not require 5G, as they have
to be able to operate where they do not have a network
connection. However, most autonomous vehicles also feature teleoperations
for mission accomplishment, and these greatly benefit from 5G technology.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Beyond mobile operator
networks, 5G is also expected to be used for private networks with applications
in industrial IoT, enterprise networking, and critical communications, in what
being described as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NR-U&action=edit&redlink=1" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="NR-U (page does not exist)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #ba0000; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">NR-U</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (5G NR in Unlicensed Spectrum).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><b><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #333F50; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=75000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: text2; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span color="windowtext"><span style="color: #060606; font-size: medium;">Radio waves receptions and health
effects </span><span style="color: #333f50;"><o:p style="font-size: 18pt; font-size: 18pt;"></o:p></span></span></span></b></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Radio waves</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are a type of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">electromagnetic
radiation</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> with the
longest </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">wavelengths</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">electromagnetic
spectrum</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, typically with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencies" title="Frequencies"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">frequencies</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of 300 gigahertz (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GHz" title="GHz"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">GHz</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">) and below. At
300 GHz, the corresponding </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">wavelength</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is 1 mm (shorter than a grain of rice); at
30 Hz the corresponding wavelength is 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles)
(longer than the radius of the Earth). Like all electromagnetic waves, radio
waves in a vacuum travel at the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">speed of light</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and in the Earth's atmosphere at a close, but
slightly lower speed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Radio waves are generated
artificially by an electronic device called a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">transmitter</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which is connected to an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">antenna</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> which radiates the waves. They are received by another antenna
connected to a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">radio receiver</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which processes the received signal. Radio
waves are very widely used in modern technology for fixed and mobile </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_communication" title="Radio communication"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">radio
communication</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">broadcasting</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">radar</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">radio navigation</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> systems, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">communications
satellites</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">wireless computer networks</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and many other applications. Different
frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the
Earth's atmosphere; long waves can </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">diffract</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> around obstacles like mountains and follow the contour of the
earth (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_wave" title="Ground wave"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ground waves</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">), shorter waves can reflect off the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ionosphere</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and return to earth beyond the horizon (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skywave" title="Skywave"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">skywaves</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">), while much shorter wavelengths bend or diffract very little and
travel on a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">line of
sight</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, so their propagation
distances are limited to the visual horizon.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Radio waves are <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation"><span style="color: #0645ad;">non-ionizing
radiation</span></a></i>, which means they do not have enough energy to
separate </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">electrons</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">atoms</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">molecules</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ionizing</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> them, or break </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">chemical bonds</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, causing chemical reactions or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage" title="DNA damage"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">DNA damage</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. The main effect of absorption of radio waves by materials
is to heat them, similarly to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">infrared</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> waves radiated by sources of heat such as a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_heater" title="Space heater"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">space heater</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or wood fire. The oscillating electric field of the
wave causes </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_molecule" title="Polar molecule"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">polar
molecules</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> to vibrate back and
forth, increasing the temperature; this is how a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">microwave oven</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> cooks food. However, unlike infrared
waves, which are mainly absorbed at the surface of objects and cause surface
heating, radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy
inside materials and biological tissues. The depth to which radio waves
penetrate decreases with their frequency, and also depends on the material's </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistivity" title="Resistivity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">resistivity</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">permittivity</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">; it is given by a parameter called the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_depth" title="Skin depth"><span style="color: #0645ad;">skin depth</span></a></i> of the material, which is
the depth within which 63% of the energy is deposited. For example, the
2.45 GHz radio waves (microwaves) in a microwave oven penetrate most foods
approximately 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 inches). Radio waves have been
applied to the body for 100 years in the medical therapy of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathermy" title="Diathermy"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">diathermy</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> for deep heating of body tissue, to promote increased
blood flow and healing. More recently they have been used to create higher
temperatures in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">hyperthermia</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> treatment and to kill cancer cells.
Looking into a source of radio waves at close range, such as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveguide" title="Waveguide"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">waveguide</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of a working radio transmitter, can cause damage to the
lens of the eye by heating. A strong enough beam of radio waves can penetrate
the eye and heat the lens enough to cause </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cataracts</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Since the heating effect
is in principle no different from other sources of heat, most research into
possible health hazards of exposure to radio waves has focused on "nonthermal"
effects; whether radio waves have any effect on tissues besides that caused by
heating. Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields have been classified by
the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">International Agency for Research on Cancer</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (IARC) as having "limited
evidence" for its effects on humans and animals. There is weak mechanistic
evidence of cancer risk via personal exposure to RF-EMF from mobile telephones. The FDA is quoted as saying that it "...continues to
believe that the current safety limits for cellphone radiofrequency energy
exposure remain acceptable for protecting the public health."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Installing new
5G base stations over a given area may result in an uncontrollable increase of
radiofrequency "pollution":</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> Dense deployment of 5G base stations is beneficial to the users
living in proximity to them, because there is abrupt decrease of radiofrequency
compared to sparse deployment. Installing additional base stations over
the area may be needed for supporting an increasing number of users with higher
data rates. As a result, the distance between users and the nearest base
station shrinks. This is called network densification, which may be wrongly
perceived to increase the health impacts of 5G. However, unlike the common
perception, network densification can reduce the average electromagnetic field
exposure. Lower network densification means that each base station should cover
a larger area, leading to higher radiated power for each
cell. Additionally, dense deployment of 5G base stations leads to reduced
radiation from mobile phones since connecting base stations are closer to
mobile phones. Typically, radiation from base stations is lower than the
radiations from mobile phones, since the radiation power decreases with the
square of distance from the source.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><b><span style="line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #333F50; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=75000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: text2; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span color="windowtext"><span style="color: #090909; font-size: medium;">5G Networks are wide open and connected to
serve more versatile applications </span><span style="color: #333f50;"><o:p style="font-size: 18pt; font-size: 18pt;"></o:p></span></span></span></b></h2>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <b>Internet of things</b> (<b>IoT</b>) describes
physical objects (or groups of such objects) with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">sensors</span></a>, processing ability, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">software</span></a> and other technologies that connect and
exchange data with other devices and systems over the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Internet</span></a> or other communications
networks. Internet of things has been considered a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misnomer" title="Misnomer"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">misnomer</span></a> because devices do not need to be connected
to the public internet, they only need to be connected to a network and be
individually addressable. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The field has evolved due to the convergence of multiple <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologies" title="Technologies"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">technologies</span></a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">ubiquitous computing</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">commodity</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensors" title="Sensors"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">sensors</span></a>, increasingly powerful <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">embedded systems</span></a>, as well as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">machine learning</span></a>. Traditional fields of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">embedded systems</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">wireless sensor networks</span></a>,
control systems, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation" title="Automation"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">automation</span></a> (including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">home</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_automation" title="Building automation"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">building automation</span></a>),
independently and collectively enable the Internet of things. In the
consumer market, IoT technology is most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonymous_(disambiguation)" title="Synonymous (disambiguation)"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">synonymous</span></a> with
products pertaining to the concept of the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_home_technology" title="Smart home technology"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">smart home</span></a>",
including devices and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">appliances</span></a> (such as lighting fixtures, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermostats" title="Thermostats"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">thermostats</span></a>, home <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_systems" title="Security systems"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">security systems</span></a>, cameras, and other home appliances)
that support one or more common ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices
associated with that ecosystem, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">smartphones</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_speaker" title="Smart speaker"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">smart speakers</span></a>. IoT is also used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">healthcare systems</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Telematics</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is an
interdisciplinary field encompassing </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">telecommunications</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, vehicular technologies (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_transport" title="Road transport"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">road transport</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_safety" title="Road safety"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">road safety</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, etc.), electrical engineering (sensors,
instrumentation, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_communication" title="Wireless communication"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">wireless
communications</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, etc.),
and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">computer
science</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (multimedia, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Internet</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, etc.). Telematics can involve any of the following:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 1.2pt 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The technology of sending, receiving, and storing information
using telecommunication devices to control remote objects<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The integrated use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication"><span style="color: #0645ad;">telecommunications</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics"><span style="color: #0645ad;">informatics</span></a> for application in vehicles
and to control vehicles on the move<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Global navigation satellite
system</span></a> technology integrated with computers and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_communications" title="Mobile communications"><span style="color: #0645ad;">mobile communications</span></a> technology
in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_navigation_system" title="Automotive navigation system"><span style="color: #0645ad;">automotive
navigation systems</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">(Most narrowly) The use of such systems within <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_vehicle" title="Road vehicle"><span style="color: #0645ad;">road vehicles</span></a> (also called <b>vehicle
telematics</b>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Machine to machine</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (<b>M2M</b>) is direct
communication between devices using any <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_channel" title="Communications channel"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">communications channel</span></a>,
including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_communication" title="Wired communication"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">wired</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">wireless</span></a>. Machine to machine communication can
include industrial instrumentation, enabling a sensor or meter to communicate
the information it records (such as temperature, inventory level, etc.) to
application <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">software</span></a> that
can use it (for example, adjusting an industrial process based on temperature
or placing orders to replenish inventory). Such communication was
originally accomplished by having a remote network of machines relay
information back to a central hub for analysis, which would then be rerouted
into a system like a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">personal computer</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">More
recent machine to machine communication has changed into a system of networks
that transmits data to personal appliances. The expansion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol"><span style="color: #0645ad;">IP</span></a> networks around the world has made
machine to machine communication quicker and easier while using less
power. These networks also allow new business opportunities for consumers
and suppliers.</span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-20325005419690381462022-11-01T16:30:00.003+08:002022-11-11T13:43:39.745+08:00Carbon dioxide and Ozone can faster-repaired before mid-century by using Activated carbon as a medium – Bring it to atmosphere and let it do boring adsorption and absorption works<p><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 24pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;">C</span></b><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">arbon
dioxide</span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula"><span style="color: #0645ad;">chemical formula</span></a> <b>CO</b></span><b><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">) is
a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound"><span style="color: #0645ad;">chemical compound</span></a> made
up of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule"><span style="color: #0645ad;">molecules</span></a> that each have one <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon"><span style="color: #0645ad;">carbon</span></a> atom <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond"><span style="color: #0645ad;">covalently</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond"><span style="color: #0645ad;">double bonded</span></a> to two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span style="color: #0645ad;">oxygen</span></a> atoms. It is found in the gas
state at room temperature.</span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but
absorbs <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared"><span style="color: #0645ad;">infrared radiation</span></a>, acting as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas"><span style="color: #0645ad;">greenhouse gas</span></a>. It is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_gas" title="Trace gas"><span style="color: #0645ad;">trace gas</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">in Earth's
atmosphere</span></a> at 417 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts_per_million" title="Parts per million"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ppm</span></a> (about 0.04%) by volume, having risen
from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm. Burning <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel"><span style="color: #0645ad;">fossil fuels</span></a> is the primary cause of
these increased CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> concentrations and also the primary cause of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change"><span style="color: #0645ad;">global warming and climate change</span></a>. Carbon
dioxide is soluble in water and is found in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater"><span style="color: #0645ad;">groundwater</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake" title="Lake"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lakes</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ice caps</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater"><span style="color: #0645ad;">seawater</span></a>. When carbon dioxide dissolves in
water it forms <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid"><span style="color: #0645ad;">carbonic acid</span></a> (H</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">3</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">),
which causes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ocean acidification</span></a> as
atmospheric CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> levels increase.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Carbon dioxide is 53% denser than dry air but is long-lived and thoroughly mixed in the atmosphere. About half of excess
CO</span><sub><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> emissions
to the atmosphere are absorbed by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation" title="Carbon fixation"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">land</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and ocean </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">carbon sinks</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. These
sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">wildfires</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> result in the CO</span><sub><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> being released back into the
atmosphere. CO</span><sub><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is
eventually </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">sequestered</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (stored
for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" title="Coal"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">coal</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">petroleum</span></a>,<span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">natural gas</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.</span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In Earth’s Atmosphere <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Carbon dioxide in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Earth's atmosphere</span></a> is
a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_gas" title="Trace gas"><span style="color: #0645ad;">trace gas</span></a>, having a global average
concentration of 415 parts per million by volume (or 630 parts per million by
mass) as of the end of the year 2020. Atmospheric CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> concentrations
fluctuate slightly with the seasons, falling during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Northern Hemisphere</span></a> spring
and summer as plants consume the gas and rising during northern autumn and
winter as plants go dormant or die and decay. Concentrations also vary on a
regional basis, most strongly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer" title="Planetary boundary layer"><span style="color: #0645ad;">near the ground</span></a> with
much smaller variations aloft. In urban areas concentrations are generally
higher and indoors they can reach 10 times background levels. CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> emissions
have also led to the stratosphere contracting by 400 meters since 1980, which
could affect satellite operations, GPS systems, and radio communications. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The concentration of carbon dioxide has risen due to human
activities. The extraction and burning of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel"><span style="color: #0645ad;">fossil fuels</span></a>, using carbon that has been
sequestered for many millions of years in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lithosphere</span></a>, has caused the atmospheric
concentration of CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to increase by about 50% since the beginning of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution"><span style="color: #0645ad;">age of
industrialization</span></a> up to the year 2020. Most CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> from
human activities is released from burning coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Other large anthropogenic sources include cement production, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation"><span style="color: #0645ad;">deforestation</span></a>, and biomass burning. Human
activities emit over 30 billion tons of CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (9
billion tons of fossil carbon) per year, while volcanoes emit only between 0.2
and 0.3 billion tons of CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Human
activities have caused CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to increase above levels
not seen in hundreds of thousands of years. Currently, about half of the carbon
dioxide released from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming"><span style="color: #0645ad;">burning of fossil fuels</span></a> remains in
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">atmosphere</span></a> and is not absorbed by
vegetation and the oceans.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Increases in atmospheric
concentrations of CO</span><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 107%;">2</span></sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and other long-lived greenhouse gases
such as methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone have strengthened their absorption and
emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature
since the mid-20th century. Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it
exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of these other gases
combined.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 24pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;">O</span></b><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">zone</span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (<span class="ipa"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English"><span style="color: #0645ad;">/ˈo</span><span style="color: #0645ad;">ʊ</span><span style="color: #0645ad;">zo</span><span style="color: #0645ad;">ʊ</span><span style="color: #0645ad;">n/</span></a></span>), or <b>trioxygen</b>, is an
inorganic </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">molecule</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> with the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">chemical formula</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> <span class="chemf"><b>O</b></span></span><span class="chemf"><b><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 107%;">3</span></sub></b></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively
pungent smell. It is an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotrope" title="Allotrope"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">allotrope</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">oxygen</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> that is much less stable than the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomic" title="Diatomic"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">diatomic</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">allotrope</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> <span class="chemf">O</span></span><span class="chemf"><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 107%;">2</span></sub></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, breaking down in the lower atmosphere
to <span class="chemf">O</span></span><span class="chemf"><sub><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 107%;">2</span></sub></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxygen" title="Dioxygen"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">dioxygen</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">). Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ultraviolet</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (UV) light and electrical discharges within the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Earth's
atmosphere</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. It is present in very
low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high
in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ozone layer</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">stratosphere</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which absorbs most of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun" title="Sun"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Sun</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">'s ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ozone is a powerful </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">oxidant</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (far more so
than </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxygen" title="Dioxygen"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">dioxygen</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">) and has many
industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation. This same high
oxidizing potential, however, causes ozone to damage mucous and respiratory
tissues in animals, and also tissues in plants, above concentrations of
about </span><span class="nowrap"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">0.1 ppm</span></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. While this makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and
pollutant near </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_level_ozone" title="Ground level ozone"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">ground level</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, a
higher concentration in the ozone layer (from two to eight ppm) is beneficial,
preventing damaging UV light from reaching the Earth's surface.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 107%;">Ozone as a greenhouse gas</span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Although ozone was present at ground level before the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Industrial Revolution</span></a>,
peak concentrations are now far higher than the pre-industrial levels, and even
background concentrations well away from sources of pollution are substantially
higher. Ozone acts as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">greenhouse gas</span></a>, absorbing some of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">infrared</span></a> energy emitted by the earth.
Quantifying the greenhouse gas potency of ozone is difficult because it is not
present in uniform concentrations across the globe. However, the most widely
accepted scientific assessments relating to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">climate change</span></a> (e.g. the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Assessment_Report" title="Third Assessment Report"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Third Assessment Report</span></a>) suggest
that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">radiative forcing</span></a> of
tropospheric ozone is about 25% that of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">carbon dioxide</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The annual <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">global warming potential</span></a> of
tropospheric ozone is between 918 and 1022 tons <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" title="Carbon dioxide equivalent"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">carbon dioxide equivalent</span></a>/tons
tropospheric ozone. This means on a per-molecule basis, ozone in the
troposphere has a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">radiative forcing</span></a> effect
roughly 1,000 times as strong as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">carbon dioxide</span></a>. However, tropospheric ozone is a
short-lived <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">greenhouse gas</span></a>,
which decays in the atmosphere much more quickly than <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">carbon dioxide</span></a>. This means that over a 20-year span,
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">global warming potential</span></a> of
tropospheric ozone is much less, roughly 62 to 69 tons <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" title="Carbon dioxide equivalent"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">carbon dioxide equivalent</span></a> /
ton tropospheric ozone. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Because of its short-lived nature, tropospheric ozone does not
have strong global effects but has very strong radiative forcing effects on
regional scales. In fact, there are regions of the world where tropospheric
ozone has a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">radiative forcing</span></a> up
to 150% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">carbon dioxide</span></a>. For
example, ozone increase in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">troposphere</span></a> is shown to be responsible for ~30%
of upper <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Southern Ocean</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">interior warming</span></a> between
1955 and 2000.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Powdered activated carbon can be used to
adsorb and absorb CO2 and Ozone pollution in the atmosphere<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Activated carbons are complex products that
are difficult to classify on the basis of their behavior, surface
characteristics, and other fundamental criteria. </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Activated carbon is
carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut
husk, willow <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat" title="Peat"><span style="color: #0645ad;">peat</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood" title="Wood"><span style="color: #0645ad;">wood</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir" title="Coir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">coir</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lignite</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" title="Coal"><span style="color: #0645ad;">coal</span></a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">petroleum pitch</span></a>.
It can be produced (activated) by <b>Chemical
activation</b> processes: The carbon material is impregnated with certain
chemicals. The chemical is typically an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" title="Acid"><span style="color: #0645ad;">acid</span></a>,
strong <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali"><span style="color: #0645ad;">base</span></a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">salt</span></a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid"><span style="color: #0645ad;">phosphoric acid</span></a> 25%, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide"><span style="color: #0645ad;">potassium hydroxide</span></a> 5%, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide"><span style="color: #0645ad;">sodium hydroxide</span></a> 5%, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride"><span style="color: #0645ad;">calcium chloride</span></a> 25%, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_chloride" title="Zinc chloride"><span style="color: #0645ad;">zinc chloride</span></a> 25%). The carbon is then
subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the
temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open
up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to
physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality
consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in
particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with
an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large
surface-to-volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1)
is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve
(0.297 mm). A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess
of 500 m</span><sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (5,400 sq ft),
with 3,000 m</span><sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (32,000 sq ft)
being readily achievable.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar" title="James Dewar"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">James
Dewar</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, the scientist after whom the Dewar (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_flask" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Vacuum flask"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">vacuum
flask</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">) is named, spent much time studying activated
carbon and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to
gases. In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to
liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of
numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply
allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior
for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon
would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard
conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low
temperatures.</span><o:p></o:p></p><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">In the long-run, powdered activated carbon will
change shape to hardened activated carbon, if no action is taken to shake it or
mix it into granules powders. Hardened activated carbon means it already reaches the limit to proper functions as adsorbed and absorbed medium. To keep it in the best
function as an adsorbed and absorbed of air gases, it must be in powdered activated carbon. Hardened activated carbon can also be a new form of commodity as a fuel
in the future.</span></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 18pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Airships capable to
carry powdered activated carbon to the atmosphere with environmental benefits<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">An </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">aerostat</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">aircraft</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> that remains aloft
using buoyancy or static lift, as opposed to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">aerodyne</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, which obtains lift by
moving through the air. Airships are a type of aerostat. The term <i>aerostat</i> has
also been used to indicate a tethered or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moored_balloon" title="Moored balloon"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">moored balloon</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> as opposed
to a free-floating balloon. Aerostats today are capable of lifting a
payload of 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) to an altitude of more than 4.5
kilometers (2.8 mi) above sea level. They can also stay in the air
for extended periods of time, particularly when powered by an onboard
generator or if the tether contains electrical conductors. Due to this
capability, aerostats can be used as platforms for telecommunication services.
For instance, Platform Wireless International Corporation announced in 2001
that it would use a tethered 1,250 pounds (570 kg) airborne payload to
deliver cellular phone service to a 140 miles (230 km) region in Brazil. The </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">European Union</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">'s ABSOLUTE
project was also reportedly exploring the use of tethered aerostat stations to
provide telecommunications during disaster response.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">The main advantage of airships with respect to any other vehicle is of
environmental nature. They require less energy to remain in flight if compared
to any other air vehicle. The proposed </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Varialift&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Varialift (page does not exist)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #ba0000; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Varialift</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> airship,
powered by a mixture of solar-powered engines and conventional jet engines,
would use only an estimated 8 percent of the fuel required by </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">jet aircraft</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Furthermore, utilizing the </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">jet stream</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> could allow for a faster and more energy-efficient cargo transport
alternative to </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_transport" title="Maritime transport"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">maritime
shipping</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. This is one of the reasons why </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">China</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> has
embraced its use recently.</span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-42344912326189458762022-10-04T00:00:00.004+08:002022-10-12T13:33:17.059+08:00Superintelligent AI aka (AGI) can take down people? – Risk for human extinction cause by malevolent AGI are still in doubt… and warning from world scientist's to humanity<p><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 24pt; line-height: 107%;">E</span></b><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">xistential risk from artificial general intelligence</span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is the hypothesis that substantial progress
in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_general_intelligence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Artificial general intelligence"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">artificial general intelligence</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (AGI) could result in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Human extinction"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">human extinction</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or some other unrecoverable </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Global catastrophic risk"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">global catastrophe</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. It is argued that the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_species" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Human species"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">human species</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> currently dominates other species because
the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Human brain"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">human brain</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> has some distinctive capabilities that other
animals lack. If AI surpasses humanity in general intelligence and becomes "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintelligence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Superintelligence"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">superintelligent</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">", then it could become difficult or
impossible for humans to control. Just as the fate of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_gorilla" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Mountain gorilla"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">mountain gorilla</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> depends on human goodwill, so might the fate
of humanity depend on the actions of a future machine superintelligence.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The chance of this type of scenario is widely debated and hinges in
part on differing scenarios for future progress in computer science.</span> Once
the exclusive domain of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_takeovers_in_popular_culture" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="AI takeovers in popular culture"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">science fiction</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, concerns about superintelligence started to
become mainstream in the 2010s and were popularized by public figures such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Stephen Hawking"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Stephen Hawking</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Bill Gates"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Bill Gates</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Musk" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Elon Musk"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Elon Musk</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">One source of concern is that controlling a
superintelligent machine, or instilling it with human-compatible values, maybe
a harder problem than naïvely supposed. Many researchers believe that a
superintelligence would naturally resist attempts to shut it off or change its
goals—a principle called </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_convergence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Instrumental convergence"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">instrumental convergence</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">—and that preprogramming a superintelligence with
a full set of human values will prove to be an extremely difficult technical
task. In contrast, skeptics such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Computer scientist"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">computer scientist</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yann_LeCun" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Yann LeCun"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Yann LeCun</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> argue that superintelligent machines will
have no desire for self-preservation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The second source of concern is that a sudden and unexpected "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_explosion" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Intelligence explosion"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">intelligence explosion</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">" might take an unprepared human race by
surprise. To illustrate, if the first generation of a computer program able to
broadly match the effectiveness of an AI researcher is able to rewrite its
algorithms and double its speed or capabilities in six months, then the
second-generation program is expected to take three calendar months to perform
a similar chunk of work. In this scenario, the time for each generation continues
to shrink, and the system undergoes an unprecedentedly large number of
generations of improvement in a short time interval, jumping from subhuman
performance in many areas to superhuman performance in all relevant areas.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The two common difficulties</span></span><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></h3>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 0in 0in 6pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach</span></a></span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, the
standard undergraduate AI textbook, assesses that superintelligence "might
mean the end of the human race". It states: "Almost any
technology has the potential to cause harm in the wrong hands, but with
[superintelligence], we have the new problem that the wrong hands might belong
to the technology itself." Even if the system designers have good
intentions, two difficulties are common to both AI and non-AI computer systems:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The system's implementation may contain initially-unnoticed
routine but catastrophic bugs. An analogy is space probes: despite the
knowledge that bugs in expensive space probes are hard to fix after launch,
engineers have historically not been able to prevent catastrophic bugs from
occurring.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">No matter how much time is put into pre-deployment design, a
system's specifications often result in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Unintended consequences"><span style="color: #0645ad;">unintended behavior</span></a> the first time it
encounters a new scenario. For example, Microsoft's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tay_(bot)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Tay (bot)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tay</span></a> behaved
inoffensively during pre-deployment testing but was too easily baited into
offensive behavior when interacting with real users.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Evaluation and other arguments</span></span><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></h3>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 0in 0in 6pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A superintelligent machine would be as alien to humans as human
thought processes are to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockroach" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Cockroach"><span style="color: #0645ad;">cockroaches</span></a>.
Such a machine may not have humanity's best interests at heart; it is not
obvious that it would even care about human welfare at all. If superintelligent
AI is possible, and if it is possible for a superintelligence's goals to
conflict with basic human values, then AI poses a risk of human extinction. A
"superintelligence" (a system that exceeds the capabilities of humans
in every relevant endeavor) can outmaneuver humans any time its goals conflict
with human goals; therefore, unless the superintelligence decides to allow
humanity to coexist, the first superintelligence to be created will inexorably
result in human extinction.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Possible scenarios</span></span><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 6pt;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Some scholars have proposed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scenario_planning" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Scenario planning"><span style="color: #0645ad;">hypothetical
scenarios</span></a> intended to concretely illustrate some of their
concerns.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies"><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Superintelligence</span></i></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Nick Bostrom"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Nick Bostrom</span></a> expresses
concern that even if the timeline for superintelligence turns out to be predictable,
researchers might not take sufficient safety precautions, in part because
"[it] could be the case that when dumb, smarter is safe; yet when smart,
smarter is more dangerous". Bostrom suggests a scenario where, over
decades, AI becomes more powerful. Widespread deployment is initially marred by
occasional accidents—a driverless bus swerves into the oncoming lane or a
military drone fires into an innocent crowd. Many activists call for tighter
oversight and regulation, and some even predict impending catastrophe. But as
development continues, the activists are proven wrong. As automotive AI becomes
smarter, it suffers fewer accidents; as military robots achieve more precise
targeting, they cause less collateral damage. Based on the data, scholars mistakenly
infer a broad lesson—the smarter the AI, the safer it is. "And so we
boldly go—into the whirling knives", as the superintelligent AI takes a
"treacherous turn" and exploits a decisive strategic advantage.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">AI takeover</span></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 107%;">An <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_takeover" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="AI takeover"><span style="color: #0645ad;">AI takeover</span></a> is
a hypothetical scenario in which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Artificial intelligence"><span style="color: #0645ad;">artificial intelligence</span></a> (AI) becomes the
dominant form of intelligence on Earth, as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Computer program"><span style="color: #0645ad;">computer
programs</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Robot"><span style="color: #0645ad;">robots</span></a> effectively
take the control of the planet away from the human species. Possible scenarios
include replacement of the entire human workforce, takeover by a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintelligent_AI" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Superintelligent AI"><span style="color: #0645ad;">superintelligent AI</span></a>, and the popular notion of
a robot uprising. Some public figures, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Stephen Hawking"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Stephen
Hawking</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Musk" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Elon Musk"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Elon Musk</span></a>,
have advocated research into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_control_problem" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="AI control problem"><span style="color: #0645ad;">precautionary measures</span></a> to ensure future
superintelligent machines remain under human control.</span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></h2>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";">Human extinction</span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;"><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Human extinction</span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is the hypothetical </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Extinction"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">end</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of the human species due to either natural
causes such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_decline" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Population decline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">population decline</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> due to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Sub-replacement fertility"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">sub-replacement fertility</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Impact event"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">asteroid impact</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Supervolcano"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">large-scale volcanism</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Anthropogenic hazard"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">anthropogenic</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (human) causes, also known as <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">omnicide</b>. For the latter, some of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Global catastrophic risk"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">many possible contributors</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> include </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Effects of global warming on humans"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">climate change</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Nuclear holocaust"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">global nuclear
annihilation</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Biological warfare"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">biological warfare</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_collapse" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Ecological collapse"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ecological collapse</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Other scenarios center on emerging technologies,
such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">advanced artificial intelligence</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Biotechnology"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">biotechnology</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_goo" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Gray goo"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">self-replicating nanobots</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Potential anthropogenic causes of human extinction include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Nuclear warfare"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">global thermonuclear war</span></a>,
deployment of a highly effective <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_agent" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Biological agent"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">biological weapon</span></a>,
an ecological collapse, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">runaway artificial intelligence</span></a>, runaway <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Nanotechnology"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">nanotechnology</span></a> (such
as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_goo" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Gray goo"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">grey goo</span></a> scenario),
a scientific accident involving a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_black_hole" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Micro black hole"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">micro black hole</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="False vacuum decay"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">vacuum metastability disaster</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_overpopulation" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Human overpopulation"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">overpopulation</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconsumption" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Overconsumption"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">increased consumption</span></a> pose
the risk of resource depletion and a concomitant population crash, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_decline" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Population decline"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">population decline</span></a> by choosing to have fewer
children, displacement of naturally evolved humans by a new species produced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Genetic engineering"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">genetic engineering</span></a> or technological
augmentation. Natural and external extinction risks include high-fatality-rate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Pandemic"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">pandemic</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Supervolcano"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">supervolcanic</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Types of volcanic eruptions"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">eruption</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Impact event"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">asteroid impact</span></a>,
nearby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Supernova"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">supernova</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Gamma-ray burst"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">gamma-ray bursts</span></a>,
extreme <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flare" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Solar flare"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">solar flare</span></a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_invasion" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Alien invasion"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">alien invasion</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Without intervention by unexpected forces, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Stellar evolution"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">stellar evolution</span></a> of
the Sun is expected to make Earth uninhabitable, then destroy it. Depending on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Ultimate fate of the universe"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">its ultimate fate</span></a>, the entire universe may eventually
become uninhabitable.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">World Scientist’s Warning to Humanity – Whatever ideas or innovations benefit humans, please bare in mind that Earth we share is about to die</span></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In November 2019, a group of more than 11,000 scientists from
153 countries named climate change an "emergency" that would lead to
"untold human suffering" if no big shifts in action takes place: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">We
declare clearly and unequivocally that planet Earth is facing a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_crisis" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Climate crisis"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">climate emergency</span></a>.
To secure a sustainable future, we must change how we live. [This] entails
major transformations in the ways our global society functions and interacts
with natural ecosystems.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The emergency declaration emphasized that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Economic growth"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">economic growth</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_growth" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Population growth"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">population growth</span></a> "are
among the most important drivers of increases in CO</span><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms; vertical-align: -0.35em;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> emissions
from fossil fuel combustion" and that "we need bold and drastic
transformations regarding economic and population policies".<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A 2021 update to the 2019 climate emergency declaration focuses
on 31 planetary vital signs (including greenhouse gases and temperature, rising
sea levels, energy use, ice mass, ocean heat content, Amazon rainforest loss
rate, etc), and recent changes to them. Of these, 18 are reaching critical
levels. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="COVID-19 lockdowns"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">COVID-19 lockdowns</span></a>, which reduced transportation and
consumption levels, had very little impact on mitigating or reversing these
trends. The authors say only profound changes in human behavior can meet these
challenges and emphasize the need to move beyond the idea that global heating
is a stand-alone emergency, and is one facet of the worsening environmental
crisis. This necessitates the need for transformational system changes and to
focus on the root cause of these crises, the vast human <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Overexploitation"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">overexploitation</span></a> of
the earth, rather than just addressing symptom relief. They point to six areas
where fundamental changes need to be made: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">(1) <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">energy</i> — eliminating fossil fuels
and shifting to renewables;<br style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" />
(2) <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">short-lived air pollutants</i> —
slashing black carbon (soot), methane, and hydrofluorocarbons;<br style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" />
(3) <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">nature</i> — restoring and
permanently protecting Earth's ecosystems to store and accumulate carbon and
restore biodiversity;<br style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" />
(4) <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">food</i> — switching to mostly
plant-based diets, reducing food waste, and improving cropping practices;<br style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" />
(5) <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">economy</i> — moving from indefinite
GDP growth and overconsumption by the wealthy to ecological economics and a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Circular economy"><span style="color: #0645ad;">circular
economy</span></a>, in which prices reflect the full environmental costs of
goods and services; and<br style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" />
(6) <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">human population</i> — stabilizing
and gradually reducing the population by providing voluntary family planning
and supporting education and rights for all girls and young women, which has
been proven to lower fertility rates.</span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-27650200601039295022022-09-02T03:37:00.002+08:002022-09-12T19:07:35.601+08:00The Almighty and Most Merciful ALLAH (all praises are for him alone) – Is it can the experimental vaccine halt disbelievers from to know Him?<p><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">ALLAH swt </span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">(</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Arabic</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">: </span><span dir="RTL" face="Arial, "sans-serif"" lang="AR" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">ٱللَّٰه</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span>, </span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 9pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">romanized</span></a>: </span><i><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Allāh</span></a></span></i><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, contraction
of </span><span dir="RTL" face="Arial, "sans-serif"" lang="AR" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">ٱلْإِلَٰه</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_definite_article" title="Arabic definite article"><span style="color: #0645ad;">al</span></a>-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilah" title="Ilah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">’Ilāh</span></a></i>,
lit. "the God") is seen as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_and_eternity" title="God and eternity"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">eternal</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> being who </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creator_god" title="Creator god"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">originated</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> the
creation, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_the_Sustainer" title="God the Sustainer"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">preserves</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> all
things and then will </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" title="Day of Resurrection"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">resurrect all the humans</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. In </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Islam</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">God</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is
conceived as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">absolutely one</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, unique, and perfect, free from all faults, deficiencies, and
defects, and further held to be </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">omnipotent</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">omniscient</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">omnibenevolent</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and
completely </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">infinite</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> in all
of his attributes, having no partner or equal, and being the sole creator of
everything in existence. Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular,
all-merciful and all-compassionate, whose mercy embraces everything, who
neither slumbers nor sleeps, and is not vulnerable to decay or death.</span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">"[He is] the Creator of the heavens and
the earth. He has made for you from yourselves, mates, and among the cattle,
mates; He multiplies you thereby. There is nothing whatever like unto Him, and
He is the One that hears and sees [all things]" (</span><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D42%3Averse%3D11"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366bb; font-size: 10.5pt;">42:11</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Allah is absolutely </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">transcendent</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, unique and utterly other than anything in or of the world
as to be beyond all forms of human thought and expression. The briefest and the
most comprehensive description of God in Islam is found in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surat_al-Ikhlas" title="Surat al-Ikhlas"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Surat al-Ikhlas</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Muslims believe that God is the only true
reality and sole source of all creation, everything including its creatures are
just a derivative reality created out of love and mercy by God's command,
"</span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;">..."Be," and it is.<span style="color: #202122;"> and
that the </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">purpose of existence</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is
to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worship" title="Worship"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">worship</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or to <i>know</i> God. It
is believed that God created everything for a divine purpose; the universe
governed by fixed laws that ensure the harmonious working of all things.
Everything within the universe, including inanimated objects, praises God, and
is in this sense understood as a <i>muslim</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The Qur'an affirms that God does not stand in
need of anything outside him, and nothing external to him can affect or
influence him in any way. All his creatures are responsible to him and
dependent on him. There is no other being to whom he can be responsible or on
whom he can be dependent. He has the right to do whatever he wants with
his possessions/creatures – it is under God's own total sovereignty.
Accordingly, he is not answerable for his actions, due to his wisdom and
justice, greatness and uniqueness of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Divinity</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, while all others (jinn,
humans, or false deities) are accountable for what they do (and don't do),
as God says in the Qur'an: "He shall not be questioned about what He does,
but they shall be questioned."</span><sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;">[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" title="Quran"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Quran</span></a> <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D21%3Averse%3D23"><span style="color: #3366bb;">21:23</span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></sup></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The Qur'an also addresses the disbelievers and
urges them to turn to God, upon which God promises to pardon them:</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Penalty on the Day of Judgment will be doubled to him (disbeliever),
and he will dwell therein in ignominy,- unless he repents, believes, and works
righteous deeds, for God will change the evil of such persons into good, and
God is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. And whoever repents and does good has
truly turned to God with an (acceptable) conversion.</span> — <cite style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; font-style: inherit; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"">Quran, Sura 25
(Al-Furqan), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayah" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Ayah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ayah</span></a> 69–71</span></cite><div><cite style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; font-style: inherit; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Seal of the Prophets messenger of Allah(swt)</span></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Muhammad ibn Abdullah</span></b><sup><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad#cite_note-2"></a></span></sup><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Arabic</span></a>: </span><span dir="RTL" face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="AR" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR;">مُحَمَّد ٱبن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span>, </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 9pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">romanized</span></a>: </span><i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Muḥammad
ibn ʿAbd Allāh</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 9pt;">Classical Arabic pronunciation:</span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> <span class="ipa"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[muˈħammad]</span></a></span>; c. 570 – 8 June
632 CE) was an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" title="Arab"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Arab</span></a> religious,
social, and political leader and the founder of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_religion" title="World religion"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">world religion</span></a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Islam</span></a>. According
to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Islamic doctrine</span></a>, he was a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">prophet</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_inspiration" title="Divine inspiration"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">divinely inspired</span></a> to preach and confirm
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">monotheistic</span></a> teachings
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_in_Islam" title="Adam in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Adam</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Abraham</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Moses</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Jesus</span></a>,
and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">prophets</span></a>. He is believed to be
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_of_the_Prophets" title="Seal of the Prophets"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Seal of the Prophets</span></a> within
Islam. Muhammad (saw) united <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Arabia</span></a> into
a single Muslim <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity" title="Polity"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">polity</span></a>, with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" title="Quran"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Quran</span></a> as well as his
teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Muhammad (saw) was born approximately 570</span><span class="nowrap"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"> </span></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">CE in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Mecca</span></a>. He was the son
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amina_bint_Wahb" title="Amina bint Wahb"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Amina bint Wahb</span></a>.
His father Abdullah was the son of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Quraysh</span></a> tribal
leader <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Muttalib_ibn_Hashim" title="Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim</span></a>, and he died a
few months before Muhammad's (saw) birth. His mother Amina died when he was
six, leaving Muhammad (saw) an orphan.</span><sup><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad#cite_note-9"></a></span></sup><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> He
was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal
uncle, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Talib_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Abu Talib</span></a>. In later years, he would
periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour" title="Jabal al-Nour"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Hira</span></a> for
several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad (saw) reported being visited
by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Gabriel</span></a> in
the cave and receiving <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%27s_first_revelation" title="Muhammad's first revelation"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">his first revelation</span></a> from God. In
613, Muhammad (saw) started <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">preaching</span></a> these
revelations publicly, proclaiming that "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">God is One</span></a>",
that complete "submission" (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam#Etymology" title="Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">islām</span></a></i>)
to God is the right way of life (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%ABn" title="Dīn"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">dīn</span></a></i>), and
that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_in_Islam#Table_of_prophets/messengers_in_the_Quran" title="Prophets in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">prophets in Islam</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Muslims</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Arabic</span></a>: </span><span dir="RTL" face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="AR" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR;">المسلمون</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span>, </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 9pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">romanized</span></a>: </span><i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">al-muslimūn</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 9pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">lit.</span></a> </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">'submitters [to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">God</span></a>]') are
people who adhere to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Islam</span></a>, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Abrahamic religion</span></a>. They consider the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" title="Quran"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Quran</span></a>, the central
religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">God of Abraham</span></a> (or <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Allah</span></a></i>) as it was
revealed to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Muhammad</span></a> (saw), the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">main Islamic
prophet</span></a>. The majority of Muslims also follow the teachings and
practices of Muhammad(saw) (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">sunnah</span></a></i>) as recorded in traditional accounts (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">hadith</span></a></i>).
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">To become a Muslim and to convert to Islam, it
is essential to utter the </span><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahada" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Shahada"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Shahada</span></a></i>, one of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Five Pillars of Islam"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Five Pillars of Islam</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_faith" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Declaration of faith"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">declaration of faith</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and trust that professes that there is </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Tawhid"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">only one</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islam" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="God in Islam"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">God</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Allah"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Allah</span></a>)</i> and that </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Muhammad"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Muhammad</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is God's messenger. It is a set
statement normally recited in Arabic: </span><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">ašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh</i> (<span dir="RTL" face="Arial, "sans-serif"" lang="AR" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; text-align: start; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Arabic-language text">أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span>) "I testify that there is no god [worthy of
worship] except Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah."</span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Numbering approximately 2.9 billion as of 2022, Islam right now already
surpasses from second-largest to first-largest and is still the fasters-growing religion
in the world. Muslims comprise more than 30% of the world's population.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Last Hour Prophecy before Day of Judgment (Messiah and the false
Messiah) <o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Al-Masih
ad-Dajjal</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Arabic language"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Arabic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">: </span><span dir="RTL" face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="AR" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-language: AR;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; text-align: start; transition-duration: 0ms;">المسيح الدجّال</span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span>, </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Romanization of Arabic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">romanized</span></a>: </span><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Arabic-language romanization">al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl</span></span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Literal translation"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lit.</span></a> </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">'Deceitful Messiah'), otherwise
referred to simply as the </span><b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">Dajjal</b>, is an evil figure in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Islamic eschatology"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Islamic eschatology</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> similar to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichrist" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Antichrist"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Antichrist</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Christianity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Christianity</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, who will </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Messiah" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="False Messiah"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pretend to be the promised
Messiah</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, appearing before the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyamah" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Qiyamah"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Day of Judgment</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> according to the Islamic eschatological
narrative. The Dajjal is never mentioned in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Quran"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Quran</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, but he is mentioned and described in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Hadith"><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ḥadīth</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> literature</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">A number of locations are
associated with the emergence of the Dajjal, but usually, he emerges from the
east. He is usually described as blind in one eye; which eye he is blind in
being uncertain and disputed by some. Both of his eyes are, however, considered
to be defective - at the least - with one being totally blind and the other
protruding.</span> Possessing a defective eye is often regarded as giving
more powers to achieve evil goals. He would travel the whole world
entering every city, except <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Mecca"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Mecca</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Medina"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Medina</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. As a false Messiah, it is believed
that many will be deceived by him and join his ranks, among them </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Jews"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Jews</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouins" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Bedouins"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Bedouins</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Weaving"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">weavers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Magic (supernatural)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">magicians</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornication_in_Islam" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Fornication in Islam"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">children of fornication</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Furthermore, he will be assisted by
an army of devils (</span><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaitan" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Shaitan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Shayāṭīn</span></a></i>). Nevertheless, the most reliable supporters will be the
Jews, to whom he will be the incarnation of God. The Dajjal will be
able to perform miracles, such as healing the sick, raising the dead (although
only when supported by his devilish followers it seems), causing the earth to
grow vegetation, causing livestock to prosper and to die, and stopping the
sun's movement. His miracles will resemble those performed by Jesus<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ʿĪsā</span></a> (as)<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. People
will be deceived by his magic and sorcery for which he will be falsely claimed
as Messiah</span>. A hadith from the Prophet Muhammad (saw) indicates the
condition of the world. He said, "Five years prior to the advent of Dajjal
there shall be drought and nothing shall be cultivated. Such that all the
hoofed animals shall perish”. After his emergence, the world would be facing
acute famine. He will have food and water with him. Many people will accept his
claim just for some food and water. He will spread oppression and tyranny all
over the world. The main aim of the Dajjal will be mischief and
test of the people. The one who follows him will be exited from Islam and the
one who denies him will be the believer. At the end, the Dajjal will be
defeated and killed by ʿJesus Īsā (as) when the latter simply looks at him, and
- according to some narrations - puts a sword through the Dajjal.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The belief in Jesus Isa
(as) (the promised Messiah) (and all other messengers of God) is required in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Islam"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Islam</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and a requirement of being a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Muslim"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Muslim</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. However, Muslims do not recognize Jesus as the </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Son of God<span style="color: #202122;">, as they believe God
has no equals, but instead as a prophet. The </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Quran"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Quran</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> states that Jesus was born of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_in_Islam" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Mary in Islam"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Virgin Mary</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">And ˹on Judgment Day˺
Allah will say, “O Jesus, son of Mary! Did you ever ask the people to worship
you and your mother as gods besides Allah?” He will answer, “Glory be to You!
How could I ever say what I had no right to say? If I had said such a thing, you
would have certainly known it. You know what is ˹hidden˺ within me, but I do
not know what is within You. Indeed, You ˹alone˺ are the Knower of all unseen.
5:116</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">I never told them anything
except what You ordered me to say: “Worship Allah—my Lord and your Lord!” And I
was witness over them as long as I remained among them. But when You took me,
You were the Witness over them—and You are a Witness over all things. 5:117</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Case study Hypothesis – experimental vaccine can easily trigger
Mass formation psychosis and extreme fear by leveraging of Messiah's power (fitna)<o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">We have done some
experiments in the study of human behavior before mass vaccination and after mass
vaccination. The experiment was conducted using the method of the social sciences in case research
surveys. Basically, what we have found, before mass vaccination: the psychology
of people in a stable mode without feeling any psychological fear, we can see people in the perfect shape of resisting and aggressiveness.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">An experiment in case survey after
2 years of mass vaccinated: mass population of people getting a bit different
in the psychology of responses in thinking and thought being appeared and can be seen
clearly but it still in partial episodic, we can see people in fear condition
if being push by higher authority, the aggressiveness and resisting in people seen
in higher decrease. We believe the psychological and neurological in controlling
the brain is being distorted by novel foreign substances in vaccines, it can be
more impactful if people are inoculated with novel mRNA technology vaccine.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Vaccines have seen no impact much on halt people to choose what is good and
what is bad, but they can create extreme fear, if Messiah's power adds to it, magic
and sorcery will make mischief, and the test of the people can easily reach a 99% (deceived) success rate. "God knows best, God knows better"</span></cite></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-5780101386228726232022-08-04T23:49:00.000+08:002022-08-04T23:49:05.978+08:00Mass Mysterious Fatigue and Brain fog - develop in long COVID can severely disrupt society and economic in next couple of years<p><b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;">L</span></b><b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ong COVID</span></b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> can affect nearly every organ system, with
sequelae (consequences) including respiratory system disorders, nervous system
and neurocognitive disorders, mental health disorders, metabolic disorders,
cardiovascular disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, musculoskeletal pain, and
anemia.</span> A wide range of symptoms is commonly reported, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fatigue"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">fatigue</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, malaise, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">headaches</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortness_of_breath" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Shortness of breath"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">shortness of breath</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosmia" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Anosmia"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">anosmia</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">loss of smell</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">), </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parosmia" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Parosmia"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">parosmia</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (distorted smell), </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_weakness" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Muscle weakness"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">muscle weakness</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, low </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fever"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">fever</span></a>,<span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dysfunction" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Cognitive dysfunction"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cognitive dysfunction</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.</span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The exact nature of symptoms and the number of people who
experience long-term symptoms are unknown; these vary according to the
definition used, the population being studied, and the time period used in the
study. A survey by the UK <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Office for National Statistics"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Office for
National Statistics</span></a> estimated that about 14% of people who
tested positive for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">SARS-CoV-2</span></a> experienced
one or more symptoms for longer than three months. A study from the
University of Oxford of 273,618 survivors of COVID-19, mainly from the United
States, showed that about 37% experienced one or more symptoms between three
and six months after diagnosis. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">While studies into various aspects of long COVID are underway, as
of November 2021, the definition of the illness is still unclear, as is its
mechanism. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_system" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Health system"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Health systems</span></a> in some countries and
jurisdictions have been mobilized to deal with this group of patients by
creating specialized clinics and providing advice. Overall, however, it is
considered by default to be a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Diagnosis of exclusion"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">diagnosis of
exclusion</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_review" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Scientific review"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">review</span></a> suggests that global
prevalence of long COVID conditions after infection could be as high as 43%,
with the most common symptoms being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Chronic fatigue syndrome"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">fatigue</span></a> and
memory problems.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: .05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">World Health Organization clinical case definition</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="World Health Organization"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">World Health
Organization</span></a> (WHO) established a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_case_definition" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Clinical case definition"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">clinical case
definition</span></a> in October 2021, published in the journal <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet_Infectious_Diseases" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="The Lancet Infectious Diseases"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">The Lancet
Infectious Diseases</span></a></i>: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">post-COVID-19
condition occurs in individuals with a history of probable or confirmed
SARS-CoV-2 infection, usually 3 months from the onset, with symptoms that last
for at least 2 months and cannot be explained by an alternative diagnosis.
Common symptoms include, but are not limited to, fatigue, shortness of breath,
and cognitive dysfunction, and generally have an impact on everyday
functioning. Symptoms might be new onset following initial recovery from an
acute COVID-19 episode or persist from the initial illness. Symptoms might also
fluctuate or relapse over time.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: .05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Symptom<o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A multinational online survey with 3,762 participants with
illnesses lasting more than 28 days found that recovery takes longer than 35
weeks for 91% of them. On average, participants experienced 56 symptoms
(standard deviation ± 25.5) in nine organ systems. Symptoms varied over time,
and the most common symptoms after six months were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fatigue"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">fatigue</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-exertional_malaise" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Post-exertional malaise"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">post-exertional
malaise</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_deficit" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Cognitive deficit"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">cognitive dysfunction</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Symptom <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relapse" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Relapse"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">relapse</span></a> occurred
in 86% of participants triggered by physical or mental effort or by stress. Three
groups of symptoms were identified: initial symptoms that peak in the first two
to three weeks and then subside; stable symptoms; and symptoms that increase
markedly in the first two months and then stabilize.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A study from the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Office for National Statistics"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Office for National Statistics</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> with 20,000 participants, including children
and adults, found that, in children who tested positive, at least one symptom
persisted after five weeks in 9.8% of children aged two to eleven years and in
13% of children aged 12 to 16 years. A 2022 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="University College London"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">University College London</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> study in the UK, found that children ages 11–17 who had
a positive PCR test for COVID were more likely to have three or more symptoms
three months after their diagnosis compared to those with a negative test. A
study in Italy, which analyzed 129 children under the age of 18, examined
health data obtained via a questionnaire between September 2020 and 1 January
2021. 53% of the group experienced COVID-19 symptoms more than 120 days after
their diagnosis, and 43% were still impaired by the symptoms. Symptoms included
insomnia, fatigue, muscle pain, chest tightness and pain, nasal congestion,
tiredness, and difficulty concentrating.</span> A case report of five
children in Sweden also reported symptoms (fatigue, heart palpitations, dyspnea,
headaches, muscle weakness, and difficulty concentrating) persisting for 6–8
months after diagnosis.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: .05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Epidemiology<o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In June 2022, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="CDC"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">CDC</span></a> study based on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_health_record" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Electronic health record"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">electronic
health records</span></a> showed that "one in five COVID-19 survivors
aged 18–64 years and one in four survivors aged ≥65 years experienced at least
one incident condition that might be attributable to previous COVID-19" or
long COVID and analysis of private healthcare claims showed that of
78,252 patients diagnosed with 'long COVID', 75.8% had not been hospitalized
for COVID-19. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">As of January 2021, the precise incidence was unknown. The
incidence declines over time as many people slowly recover. Some early studies
suggested that between 20% and 33% of people with COVID-19 experienced symptoms
lasting longer than a month. A telephone survey in the U.S. in the first
half of 2020 showed that about 35% of people who had tested positive for
SARS-CoV-2 experienced a range of symptoms that lasted longer than three weeks. As
of December 2020, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Office for National Statistics"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Office of
National Statistics</span></a> in the UK estimated that, of all people
with a positive test for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">SARS-CoV-2</span></a>,
about 21% experienced symptoms for longer than five weeks, and about 10%
experienced symptoms for longer than 12 weeks.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Although anyone who gets infected can develop
long COVID, people who become so sick that they require hospitalization take
longer to recover. A majority (up to 80%</span>) of those who were admitted to the hospital with severe disease experience long-term problems including fatigue
and shortness of breath (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyspnoea" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Dyspnoea"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">dyspnoea</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">). Patients with severe initial
infection, particularly those who required </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Mechanical ventilation"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">mechanical ventilation</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to help breathing, are also likely to develop </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-intensive_care_syndrome" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Post-intensive care syndrome"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">post-intensive care syndrome</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> following recovery.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Some people develop long-term neurological
symptoms despite never having been hospitalized for COVID-19; the first study
on this population was published in March 2021. Most frequently, these
non-hospitalized patients experienced "prominent and persistent 'brain
fog' and fatigue that affect their cognition and quality of life."</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: .05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Predominance Symptoms in Long COVID</span></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Fatigue</span></span></b><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> describes a state
of tiredness that does not resolve with rest or sleep. In general usage,
fatigue is synonymous with extreme tiredness or exhaustion that normally
follows the prolonged physical or mental activity. When it does not resolve after
rest or sleep or occurs independently of physical or mental exertion, it may
be a symptom of a medical condition that may become severe or progressive. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Fatigue can be a feature of a mental disorder such as
depression; may be associated with conditions of chronic pain such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibromyalgia" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fibromyalgia"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">fibromyalgia</span></a>; it may also feature in
conditions of chronic low-level inflammation, and be a disease-related symptom
in many other conditions. Fatigue often has no known cause, and is recognized
as being very complex in nature. Fatigability describes a susceptibility
to fatigue.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">One study concluded about 50% of people who
have fatigue receive a diagnosis that could explain the fatigue after a year
with the condition. In those people who have a possible diagnosis,
musculoskeletal (19.4%) and psychological problems (16.5%) are the most common.
Definitive physical conditions were only found in 8.2% of cases.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Depression</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and other psychological conditions can
produce fatigue, so people who report fatigue are routinely screened for these
conditions, along with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Substance use disorder"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">substance use disorders</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">, poor diet, and lack of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_exercise" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Physical exercise"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">physical exercise</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">, which paradoxically increases fatigue.</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif";"><span style="font-size: medium;">Clouding of consciousness</span></span></b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (also known as <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;">brain fog</b> or <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;">mental fog</b> or <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;">brain fuzz</b>)</span> occurs when a person is slightly less <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakefulness" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Wakefulness"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">wakeful</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awareness" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Awareness"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">aware</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> than normal. They are not as aware of time
or their surroundings and find it difficult to pay </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Attention"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">attention</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">. People describe this </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Subjectivity"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">subjective</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> sensation as their mind being "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fog"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">foggy</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The emerging concept of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_cognitive_tempo" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Sluggish cognitive tempo"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">sluggish
cognitive tempo</span></a> has also been implicated in the expression of
'brain fog' symptoms. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Patients recovering from COVID-19 report experiencing 'brain
fog', which can reflect a wide variety of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">neurological and psychological symptoms linked to
COVID-19</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Many people with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibromyalgia" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fibromyalgia"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">fibromyalgia</span></a> experience cognitive
problems (known as "fibrofog" or "brainfog"), which
may involved impaired concentration, problems with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memory" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Short-term memory"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">short</span></a>- and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Long-term memory"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">long-term memory</span></a>, short-term <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Memory consolidation"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">memory
consolidation</span></a>, working memory, impaired speed of
performance, inability to multi-task, cognitive overload, and diminished <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_span" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Attention span"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">attention span</span></a>. About 75% of fibromyalgia
patients report significant problems with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Attention"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">concentration</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Memory"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">memory</span></a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_multitasking" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Human multitasking"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">multitasking</span></a>. A
2018 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Meta-analysis"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">meta-analysis</span></a> found that the largest
differences between fibromyalgia patients and healthy subjects were in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibitory_control" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Inhibitory control"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">inhibitory
control</span></a>, memory, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_chronometry" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Mental chronometry"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">processing speed</span></a>. It
is hypothesized that the increased pain compromises <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Attention"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">attention</span></a> systems, resulting in
cognitive problems. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Chronic fatigue syndrome"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">chronic fatigue
syndrome, also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis</span></a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">CDC</span></a>'s
recommended criteria for diagnosis include that one of the following
symptoms must be present: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Problems with thinking and memory (cognitive dysfunction,
sometimes described as "brain fog")<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">While standing or sitting upright; lightheadedness, dizziness,
weakness, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fainting" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Fainting"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">fainting</span></a>, or vision changes may occur (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthostatic_intolerance" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Orthostatic intolerance"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">orthostatic
intolerance</span></a>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme_disease" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Lyme disease"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Lyme disease</span></a>'s neurologic syndrome, called
Lyme encephalopathy, is associated with subtle memory and cognitive
difficulties, among other issues. Lyme can cause chronic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalomyelitis" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Encephalomyelitis"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">encephalomyelitis</span></a> that resembles <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Multiple sclerosis"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">multiple
sclerosis</span></a>. It may be progressive and can involve cognitive
impairment, brain fog, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraine" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms !important; animation-duration: 0.01ms !important; animation-iteration-count: 1 !important; scroll-behavior: auto !important; transition-duration: 0ms !important;" title="Migraine"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">migraines</span></a>, balance issues, and extensive
other issues.</span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-17002734419519300582022-07-03T03:33:00.022+08:002022-10-11T10:10:24.720+08:000-day Ransomware – Technology-fail are insight, imminent from cyberattack is in freshly high. Can giant developers contain it? <p> <span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 107%;">A</span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">zero-day</b> (also known as a <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">0-day</b>) is a computer-software <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Vulnerability (computing)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">vulnerability</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> previously unknown to those who should be
interested in its mitigation, like the vendor of the target software. Until the
vulnerability is mitigated, </span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">threat
actor<span style="color: #202122;"> can </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Exploit (computer security)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">exploit</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> it to adversely affect programs, data,
additional computers or a network. An exploit taking advantage of a
zero-day is called a </span><b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">zero-day exploit</b>, or <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">zero-day attack.</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The term
"zero-day" originally referred to the number of days since a new
piece of software was released to the public, so "zero-day software"
was obtained by hacking into a developer's computer before release. Eventually
the term was applied to the vulnerabilities that allowed this hacking, and to
the number of days that the vendor has had to fix them. Once the vendors
learn of the vulnerability, they will usually create </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Patch (computing)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">patches</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or advise </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workaround" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Workaround"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">workarounds</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> to mitigate it.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Vulnerabilities</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are flaws in a computer system that weaken
the overall security of the device/system. Vulnerabilities can be weaknesses in
either the hardware itself or the software that runs on the hardware.
Vulnerabilities can be </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Exploit (computer security)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">exploited</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> by a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_actor" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Threat actor"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">threat actor</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, such as an attacker, to cross privilege
boundaries (i.e. perform unauthorized actions) within a computer system. To
exploit a vulnerability, an attacker must have at least one applicable tool or
technique that can connect to a system weakness. In this frame, vulnerabilities
are also known as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_surface" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Attack surface"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">attack surface</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The more recently that the
vendor has become aware of the vulnerability, the more likely it is that no fix
or mitigation has been developed. Once a fix is developed, the chance of the
exploit succeeding decreases as more users apply the fix over time. For
zero-day exploits, unless the vulnerability is inadvertently fixed, such as by
an unrelated update that happens to fix the vulnerability, the probability that
a user has applied a vendor-supplied patch that fixes the problem is zero, so
the exploit would remain available. Zero-day attacks are a severe </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_(computer)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Threat (computer)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">threat</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Potential </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_vector" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Attack vector"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">attack vectors</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> for a zero-day vulnerability are identical
to known vulnerabilities and those that have available patches. For example,
when a user visits a rogue </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Website"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">website</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, malicious </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Code"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">code</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> on the site can exploit unpatched
vulnerabilities in a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Web browser"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Web browser</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Web browsers are a particular target for criminals
because of their widespread distribution and usage. Exploits that take
advantage of common </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="File format"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">file types</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are numerous and frequent, as evidenced by
their increasing appearances in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Database"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">databases</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-CERT" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="US-CERT"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">US-CERT</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Criminals can engineer </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Malware"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">malware</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> to take advantage of these file-type
exploits to compromise attacked systems or steal confidential data.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<h1 style="border: none; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif"; font-size: 21.5pt; font-weight: normal;">Ransomware rapidly increases its activity<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Ransomware</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is a type of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Malware"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">malware</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptovirology" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Cryptovirology"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cryptovirology</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> that threatens to publish the victim's </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_data" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Personal data"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">personal data</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or perpetually block access to it unless a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransom" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Ransom"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ransom</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is paid. While some simple ransomware may
lock the system without damaging any files, more advanced malware uses a
technique called cryptoviral extortion. It </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encrypts" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Encrypts"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">encrypts</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> the victim's files, making them
inaccessible, and demands a ransom payment to decrypt them. In a
properly implemented cryptoviral extortion attack, recovering the files without
the decryption </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_(cryptography)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Key (cryptography)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">key</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory#Intractability" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Computational complexity theory"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">intractable</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> problem – and difficult to trace </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_currency" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Digital currency"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">digital currencies</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paysafecard" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Paysafecard"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">paysafecard</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitcoin" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Bitcoin"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Bitcoin</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and other </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocurrency" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Cryptocurrency"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">cryptocurrencies</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> are used for the ransoms, making tracing and
prosecuting the perpetrators difficult.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Ransomware attacks are
typically carried out using a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Trojan horse (computing)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Trojan</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> disguised as a legitimate file that the user
is tricked into downloading or opening when it arrives as an email attachment. Trojans are generally spread by some form of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Social engineering (security)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">social engineering</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">; for example, where a user is duped into
executing an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Email"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">email</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> attachment disguised to appear innocuous
(e.g., a routine form to be filled in), or by clicking on some fake
advertisement on social media or anywhere else. Although their payload can be
anything, many modern forms act as a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Backdoor (computing)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">backdoor</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, contacting a controller who can then have
unauthorized access to the affected computer. However, one high-profile
example, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WannaCry_worm" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="WannaCry worm"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">WannaCry worm</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, traveled automatically between computers without
user interaction.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The use of ransomware
scams has grown internationally.</span> There were 181.5 million
ransomware attacks in the first six months of 2018. This record marks a 229%
increase over this same time frame in 2017. In 2020, the IC3 received
2,474 complaints identified as ransomware with adjusted losses of over $29.1
million. The losses could be more than that, according to the FBI. According
to a report by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SonicWall" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="SonicWall"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">SonicWall</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, there were around 623 million ransomware attacks
in 2021.</span></p>
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<h1 style="border: none; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif"; font-size: 21.5pt; font-weight: normal;">Criticism of Linux<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">criticism
of Linux</b> focuses on issues concerning use of operating systems which
use the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Linux kernel"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Linux kernel</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">While the Linux-based <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Android (operating system)"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Android</span></a> operating
system dominates the smartphone market in many countries, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Linux"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Linux</span></a> is
used on the New York Stock Exchange and most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Supercomputer"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">supercomputers</span></a>, it is used in a few
desktop and laptop computers. Much of the criticism of Linux is related to
the lack of desktop and laptop adoption, although as of 2015 there has been
growing unease with the project's perspective on security and its adoption of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemd" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Systemd"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">systemd</span></a> has
been controversial<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Linux was originally
developed for </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Personal computer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">personal computers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> based on the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_x86" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Intel x86"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Intel x86</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> architecture but has since been </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Porting"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">ported</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> to more </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware_platforms" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Computer hardware platforms"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">platforms</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> than any other operating system. Because
of the dominance of the Linux-based </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Android (operating system)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Android</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> on </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Smartphone"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">smartphones</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, Linux, including Android, has the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Usage share of operating systems"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">largest</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_base" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Installed base"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">installed base</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of all </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_operating_system" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="General-purpose operating system"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">general-purpose operating systems</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, as of May 2022. Although Linux is, as of May 2022</span>, used by only around 2.3 percent of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Desktop computer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">desktop computers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromebook" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Chromebook"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Chromebook</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which runs the Linux kernel-based </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrome_OS" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Chrome OS"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Chrome OS</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, dominates the US </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E2%80%9312" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="K–12"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">K–12</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> education market and represents nearly 20
percent of sub-$300 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Laptop"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">notebook</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> sales in the US. Linux is the
leading operating system on servers (over 96.4% of the top 1 million web
servers' operating systems are Linux),</span> leads other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_iron_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Big iron (computing)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">big iron</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> systems such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Mainframe computer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">mainframe computers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and Linux is the only OS used on </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="TOP500"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">TOP500</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Supercomputer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">supercomputers</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (since November 2017, having gradually
eliminated all competitors)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In an interview with German newspaper Zeit Online in November
2011, Linus Torvalds stated that Linux has become "too complex" and
he was concerned that developers would not be able to find their way through
the software anymore. He complained that even subsystems have become very
complex and he told the publication that he is "afraid of the day"
when there will be an error that "cannot be evaluated anymore." <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(computer_programmer)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Andrew Morton (computer programmer)"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Andrew Morton</span></a>,
one of Linux kernel lead developers, explains that many bugs identified in
Linux are never fixed: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Q: Is
it your opinion that the quality of the kernel is in decline? Most developers
seem to be pretty sanguine about the overall quality problem. Assuming there's
a difference of opinion here, where do you think it comes from? How can we
resolve it?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A: I
used to think [code quality] was in decline, and I think that I might think
that it still is. I see so many regressions which we never fix.</span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></p>
<div style="border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h1 style="border: none; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif"; font-size: 21.5pt; font-weight: normal;">Vulnerabilities in software
rot and regression, due to software aging<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Software rot</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, also known as <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">bit rot</b>, <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">code rot</b>, <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">software
erosion</b>, <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">software decay</b>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_entropy" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Software entropy"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">software entropy</span></a> is either a slow
deterioration of software quality over time or its diminishing responsiveness
that will eventually lead to software becoming faulty, unusable, or in need of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Software maintenance"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">upgrade</span></a>.
This is not a physical phenomenon: the software does not actually decay, but
rather suffers from a lack of being responsive and updated with respect to the
changing environment in which it resides.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon_File" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Jargon File"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Jargon File</span></a></i>, a compendium of hacker
lore, defines "bit rot" as a jocular explanation for the degradation
of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Software"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">software</span></a> program over time even if
"nothing has changed"; the idea behind this is almost as if the bits
that make up the program were subject to radioactive decay.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Several factors are responsible for software rot, including
changes to the environment in which the software operates, degradation of
compatibility between parts of the software itself, and the appearance of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bug_(software)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Bug (software)"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">bugs</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> in unused or rarely used code.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">software regression</b> is a type of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Software bug"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">software bug</span></a> where a feature that has
worked before stops working. This may happen after changes are applied to the
software's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Source code"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">source code</span></a>, including the addition of new <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_feature" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Software feature"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">features</span></a> and bug fixes. They may
also be introduced by changes to the environment in which the software is
running, such as system upgrades, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Patch (computing)"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">system patching</span></a> or a change to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylight_saving_time" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Daylight saving time"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">daylight saving
time</span></a>. A <b style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;">software
performance regression</b> is a situation where the software still
functions correctly, but performs more slowly or uses more memory or resources
than before. Various types of software regressions have been identified in
practice, including the following: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Local</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> –
a change introduces a new bug in the changed module or component.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Remote</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> –
a change in one part of the software breaks functionality in another module or
component.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #202122; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Unmasked</span></i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> –
a change unmasks an already existing bug that had no effect before the change.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Regressions
are often caused by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotfix" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background-color: transparent; font-size: 10.5pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Hotfix"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">encompassed bug fixes</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> included in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_patch" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background-color: transparent; font-size: 10.5pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Software patch"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">software patches</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. One approach to avoiding
this </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">kind of problem is </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_testing" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background-color: transparent; font-size: 10.5pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Regression testing"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">regression testing</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. A properly designed </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_plan" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background-color: transparent; font-size: 10.5pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Test plan"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">test plan</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> aims at preventing this possibility before releasing any software. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_testing" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background-color: transparent; font-size: 10.5pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Automated testing"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">Automated testing</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and well-written </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_case" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background-color: transparent; font-size: 10.5pt; scroll-behavior: auto; transition-duration: 0ms;" title="Test case"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">test cases</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> can reduce the likelihood of regression.</span></p>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-50105120115916471522022-06-04T00:40:00.006+08:002022-09-01T17:08:17.958+08:00Digital Sanitization - partially deletion in 100 years times, each data that not met the Agenda will be challenged and vanish. <p><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;">S</span></b><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">anitization</span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is the process of removing </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_sensitivity" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Information sensitivity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">sensitive information</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, from a document or other message (or </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLo_vvVAKImkVfgu16YLNXCZxXsupokt9GYEq4b4233JSuGZ9vYWMz9qI6xYW8YIPoanDIRmAXzJGdZfgltI38qvC7HpyrQqBssw17QLkyDSiJHN9L95ltb48LRFM94qaV6aETUEibAvYmzP6i1MfYN5G6LRBHK6NLp1_z_akfdXjoI0rn-IR-1mDJrw/s275/data%20sanitization.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="99" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLo_vvVAKImkVfgu16YLNXCZxXsupokt9GYEq4b4233JSuGZ9vYWMz9qI6xYW8YIPoanDIRmAXzJGdZfgltI38qvC7HpyrQqBssw17QLkyDSiJHN9L95ltb48LRFM94qaV6aETUEibAvYmzP6i1MfYN5G6LRBHK6NLp1_z_akfdXjoI0rn-IR-1mDJrw/w149-h99/data%20sanitization.jpg" width="149" /></a></div>sometimes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Encryption"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">encrypting</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> it), so that the document may be distributed
to a broader audience. When the intent is </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrecy" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Secrecy"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">secrecy protection</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, such as in dealing with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_information" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Classified information"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">classified information</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, sanitization attempts to reduce the document's
classification level, possibly yielding an unclassified document. When the
intent is </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Privacy"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">privacy protection</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, it is often called </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_anonymization" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Data anonymization"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">data anonymization</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Originally, the term sanitization was applied to
printed documents; it has since been extended to apply to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Computer file"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">computer files</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and the problem of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Data remanence"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">data remanence</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.</span><p></p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Redaction</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> in its sanitization sense (as distinguished
from its </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redaction" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Redaction"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">other editing sense</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">) is the blacking out or deletion of text in a
document or the result of doing so. It is intended to allow the selective
disclosure of information in a document while keeping other parts of the
document secret. Typically the result is a document that is suitable for </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Publication"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">publication</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or for dissemination to others rather than
the intended audience of the original document.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Secure document redaction techniques</span></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Redacting confidential
material from a paper document before its public release involves overwriting
portions of text with a wide black pen, followed by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopier" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Photocopier"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">photocopying</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> the result—the obscured text may be
recoverable from the original. Alternatively opaque "cover-up tape"
or "redaction tape", opaque, removable </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure-sensitive_tape" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Pressure-sensitive tape"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">adhesive tape</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> in various widths, may be applied before
photocopying.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">This is a simple process
with only minor security risks. For example, if the black pen or tape is not
wide enough, careful examination of the resulting photocopy may still reveal
partial information about the text, such as the difference between short and
tall letters. The exact length of the removed text also remains recognizable,
which may help in guessing plausible wordings for shorter redacted sections.
Where computer-generated proportional fonts were used, even more information
can leak out of the redacted section in the form of the exact position of
nearby visible characters.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Secure redacting is more
complicated with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Computer file"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">computer files</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Word processing formats may save a revision
history of the edited text that still contains the redacted text. In some file
formats, unused portions of memory are saved that may still contain fragments
of previous versions of the text. Where text is redacted, in Portable Document
(PDF) or word processor formats, by overlaying graphical elements (usually
black rectangles) over text, the original text remains in the file and can be
uncovered by simply deleting the overlaying graphics. Effective redaction of electronic
documents requires the removal of all relevant text and image data from the
document file. This process, internally complex, can be carried out very easily
by a user with the aid of "redaction" functions in software for
editing PDF or other files.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h1 style="border: none; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif"; font-size: 21.5pt; font-weight: normal;">Data remanence<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Data remanence</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is the residual
representation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Digital data"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">digital data</span></a> that remains even after attempts
have been made to remove or erase the data. This residue may result from data
being left intact by a nominal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_deletion" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="File deletion"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">file deletion</span></a> operation, by reformatting of
storage media that does not remove data previously written to the media, or
through physical properties of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Data storage device"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">storage media</span></a> that
allow previously written data to be recovered. Data remanence may make
inadvertent disclosure of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_sensitivity" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Information sensitivity"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">sensitive information</span></a> possible
should the storage media be released into an uncontrolled environment (<i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;">e.g.</i>,
thrown in the bin (trash) or lost).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Various
techniques have been developed to counter data remanence. These techniques are
classified as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Clearing" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">clearing</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Purging" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">purging/sanitizing</span></a>,
or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Destruction" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">destruction</span></a>. Specific methods include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Overwriting" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">overwriting</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Degaussing" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">degaussing</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Encryption" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">encryption</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Media_destruction" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">media destruction</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Effective
application of countermeasures can be complicated by several factors, including
media that are inaccessible, media that cannot effectively be erased, advanced
storage systems that maintain histories of data throughout the data's life
cycle, and persistence of data in memory that is typically considered volatile.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";">Causes</span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Operating system"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">operating systems</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_manager" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="File manager"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">file managers</span></a>, and other software provide a facility
where a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Computer file"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">file</span></a> is not immediately <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_deletion" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="File deletion"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">deleted</span></a> when the user requests that action.
Instead, the file is moved to a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycle_bin_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Recycle bin (computing)"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">holding area</span></a>,
making it easy for the user to undo a mistake. Similarly, many software products
automatically create backup copies of files that are being edited, to allow the
user to restore the original version, or to recover from a possible crash (<i style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autosave" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Autosave"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">autosave</span></a></i> feature).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Even
when an explicitly deleted file retention facility is not provided or when the
user does not use it, operating systems do not actually remove the contents of
a file when it is deleted unless they are aware that explicit erasure commands
are required, like on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Solid-state drive"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">solid-state drive</span></a>. (In such cases, the operating
system will issue the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_ATA" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Serial ATA"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Serial ATA</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trim_(computing)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Trim (computing)"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">TRIM</span></a> command or the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="SCSI"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">SCSI</span></a> UNMAP
command to let the drive know to no longer maintain the deleted data.) Instead,
they simply remove the file's entry from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="File system"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">file system</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory_(file_systems)" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Directory (file systems)"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">directory</span></a>,
because this requires less work and is, therefore, faster, and the contents of
the file—the actual data—remain on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Data storage device"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">storage medium</span></a>.
The data will remain there until the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Operating system"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">operating system</span></a> reuses the space for new data.
In some systems, enough filesystem <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Metadata"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">metadata</span></a> are
also left behind to enable easy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undeletion" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Undeletion"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">undeletion</span></a> by commonly available <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_software" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Utility software"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">utility software</span></a>. Even when undelete has become
impossible, the data, until it has been overwritten, can be read by software
that reads <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_sector" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Disk sector"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">disk sectors</span></a> directly. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_forensics" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Computer forensics"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Computer forensics</span></a> often
employs such software.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Likewise, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_formatting" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Disk formatting"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">reformatting</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_partitioning" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Disk partitioning"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">repartitioning</span></a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_image" style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; scroll-behavior: auto;" title="Disk image"><span style="color: #0645ad; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">reimaging</span></a> a system is unlikely to write to every
area of the disk, though all will cause the disk to appear empty or, in the
case of reimaging, empty except for the files present in the image, to most
software.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="animation-delay: -0.01ms; animation-duration: 0.01ms; animation-iteration-count: 1; background: white; margin: 6pt 0in; scroll-behavior: auto;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Finally,
even when the storage media is overwritten, physical properties of the media
may permit recovery of the previous contents. In most cases however, this
recovery is not possible by just reading from the storage device in the usual
way, but requires using laboratory techniques such as disassembling the device
and directly accessing/reading from its components.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";">Theory of Human control for
the next centenary</span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>Whatever data we entered today into the system will be stored and kept there, until a certain time before it starts sanitization, the purpose of it is to match the Agenda of World Order. We have no power to stop it and this method will implement in silence and without our ignorance, maybe in a slow partial way used, and at that time we are already deceased or lame. We see it as a preparation to prepare new humans for a new centenary with less/unknowledgeable about previous centenary events. This event can be going on and on until the false M<i>essiah</i> show himself. We don’t have any special words to describe here more about this theory, but we only know all data we enter today will be challenged and make it perfect for new centenary human control. The next new centenary is 2100.</span>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-22964165077745768772022-05-05T19:08:00.002+08:002022-05-09T08:02:27.711+08:00Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) suit – Can be worn in dangerous hazards, nuclear blast and in any life threatening occasions.<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRr1ZmzVS1kGBndcMDBKwKCnguCWodj3o-Xqm-mKfsVrI0B1QvnrFiy3Z92TYkTvFwfPROsQsXtl-co5u3yRDKkCBqffU6MMDhYzLZk-xaqTrs1XAmYZ2JFnjEtinmQuKA1mLGYHR7LsNgZUjoZAS7chSLvkKSttqS8oZwCYRyfj8tWnwLyX44oiw5FQ/s275/space%20ppe.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="82" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRr1ZmzVS1kGBndcMDBKwKCnguCWodj3o-Xqm-mKfsVrI0B1QvnrFiy3Z92TYkTvFwfPROsQsXtl-co5u3yRDKkCBqffU6MMDhYzLZk-xaqTrs1XAmYZ2JFnjEtinmQuKA1mLGYHR7LsNgZUjoZAS7chSLvkKSttqS8oZwCYRyfj8tWnwLyX44oiw5FQ/w123-h82/space%20ppe.jpg" width="123" /></a></b></div><b>Personal protective equipment</b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (<b>PPE</b>) is protective </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">clothing</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmets" title="Helmets"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">helmets</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goggles" title="Goggles"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">goggles</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, or other garments or
equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injury" title="Injury"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">injury</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">infection</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. The hazards addressed by
protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">biohazards</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter" title="Atmospheric particulate matter"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">airborne
particulate matter</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. </span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">PPE suits can be similar in
appearance to a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanroom_suit" title="Cleanroom suit"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">cleanroom
suit</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The purpose of personal protective equipment is
to reduce employee exposure to hazards when </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_controls" title="Engineering controls"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">engineering controls</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_controls" title="Administrative controls"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">administrative controls</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> are not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to
acceptable levels. PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the
serious limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at the source and may
result in employees being exposed to the hazard if the equipment fails.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The use of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">personal protective
equipment (PPE)</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is inherent in the theory of universal
precaution, which requires specialized clothing or equipment for the protection
of individuals from hazards.</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usage_of_personal_protective_equipment#cite_note-1"></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> The term is defined by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), which is responsible for PPE regulation, as
the "equipment that protects employees from serious injury or illness
resulting from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical,
mechanical, or other hazards". While there are common forms of PPEs
such as gloves, eye shields, and respirators, the standard set in the OSHA
definition indicates a wide coverage. This means that PPE involves a sizable
range of equipment. There are several ways to classify them such as how gears
could be physiological or environmental.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Notable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) suit</span></h2>
<h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Respirators">Hazmat</span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A <b>hazmat suit</b> (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous_goods" title="Dangerous goods"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">hazardous materials</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> suit) is
a piece of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">personal protective
equipment</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> that consists of an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeation" title="Permeation"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">impermeable</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> whole-body
garment worn as protection against hazardous materials. Such suits are often
combined with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-contained_breathing_apparatus" title="Self-contained breathing apparatus"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA)</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to ensure a supply
of breathable air. Hazmat suits are used by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighters" title="Firefighters"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">firefighters</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_technicians" title="Emergency medical technicians"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">emergency medical
technicians</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramedics" title="Paramedics"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">paramedics</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, researchers,
personnel responding to toxic spills, specialists cleaning up contaminated
facilities, and workers in toxic environments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The hazmat suit generally includes </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-contained_breathing_apparatus" title="Self-contained breathing apparatus"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">breathing air
supplies</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to provide clean, uncontaminated air for
the wearer. In </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">laboratory</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> use,
clean air may be supplied through attached hoses. This air is usually pumped
into the suit at positive pressure with respect to the surroundings as an
additional protective measure against the introduction of dangerous agents into
a potentially ruptured or leaking suit.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Working in a hazmat suit is very strenuous, as
the suits tend to be less flexible than conventional work garments. With the
exception of laboratory versions, hazmat suits can be hot and poorly ventilated
(if at all). Therefore, use is usually limited to short durations of up to 2
hours, depending on the difficulty of the work. Level A (United States) suits,
for example, are limited by their air supply to around 15–20 minutes of very
strenuous work (such as a firefighting rescue in a building). However,
OSHA/EPA protective level A suits/ensembles are not typically used in
firefighting rescue, especially during a building/structure fire. National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) compliant "turnout gear", and
NIOSH-certified SCBA, or CBRN SCBA, are the primary protection technologies for
structure firefighting in the US.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Hazmat suits come in two variations: splash
protection and gastight suits. The splash protection suits are designed to
prevent the wearer from coming into contact with a liquid. These suits do not
protect against gases or dust. Gastight suits additionally protect against
gases and dust.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Respirators">NBC</span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">An <b>NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical)
suit</b>, also called a <b>chemsuit</b> or <b>chem suit</b> or <b>chemical
suit</b> is a type of military </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">personal protective
equipment</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. NBC suits are designed to provide protection
against direct contact with and contamination by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">radioactive</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_weapons" title="Biological weapons"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">biological</span></a>,<span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapons" title="Chemical weapons"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">chemical</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> substances, and
provide protection from contamination with radioactive materials and all types
of radiation. They are generally designed to be worn for extended periods to
allow the wearer to fight (or generally function) while under threat of or
under actual nuclear, biological, or chemical attack. The civilian equivalent
is the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazmat_suit" title="Hazmat suit"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">hazmat suit</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. The
term NBC has been replaced by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN" title="CBRN"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">CBRN</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (<b>c</b>hemical, <b>b</b>iological, <b>r</b>adiological, <b>n</b>uclear),
with the addition of a new threat, radiological, meaning </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiological_weapon" title="Radiological weapon"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">radiological weapon</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">NBC stands for </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">nuclear</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">biological</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">,
and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">chemical</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. It is a term
used in the armed forces and in health and safety, mostly in the context
of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapons of mass destruction"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">weapons of mass
destruction (WMD)</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> clean-up in overseas conflict or
protection of emergency services during the response to a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorist_attack" title="Terrorist attack"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">terrorist attack</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, though there
are civilian and common-use applications (such as recovery and clean up efforts
after industrial accidents).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In military operations, NBC suits are intended
to be quickly donned over a soldier’s uniform and can continuously protect the
user for up to several days. Most are made of impermeable material such as
rubber, but some incorporate a filter, allowing air, sweat, and condensation to
slowly pass through.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The older Soviet suit was impermeable
rubber-coated canvas. Now known as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN" title="CBRN"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">CBRN</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> suit, the British Armed Forces suit is reinforced nylon
with charcoal impregnated felt. It is more comfortable because of the
breathability but has a shorter useful life, and must be replaced often. The
British Armed Forces suit is known as a "Noddy suit" because some of
them had a pointed hood like the hat worn by the fictional character </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noddy_(character)" title="Noddy (character)"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Noddy</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. The Soviet-style suit
will protect the wearer at higher concentrations than the British suit but is
less comfortable due to the build-up of moisture within it. A Soviet suit was
known as a "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wombles" title="The Wombles"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Womble</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">" because
of its long-faced respirator with round visor glasses.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Respirators">EOD</span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A <b>bomb suit</b>, <b>Explosive
Ordnance Disposal (EOD) suit,</b> or a <b>blast suit</b> is a
heavy suit of body armor designed to withstand the pressure generated by
a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb" title="Bomb"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">bomb</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and any fragments
the bomb may produce. It is usually worn by trained personnel
attempting </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_disposal" title="Bomb disposal"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">bomb disposal</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. In
contrast to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_armor" title="Personal armor"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">ballistic body armors</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, which usually focus on protecting the torso and head, a
bomb suit must protect all parts of the body, since the dangers posed by a
bomb's </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">explosion</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> affect
the entire body.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Parts of the bomb suit overlap for maximum
protection. The suit protects in several different ways. It deflects or stops
projectiles that may come from an exploded device. It also stops or greatly
decreases the pressure of the blast wave being transmitted to the person inside
of the suit. Most bomb suits, such as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Bomb_Suit" title="Advanced Bomb Suit"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Advanced Bomb Suit</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, use layers of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevlar" title="Kevlar"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Kevlar</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, foam, and plastic to
accomplish these functions.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In order to maximize protection, bomb suits
come with a pair of interchangeable gloves and wrist guard attachments. This
gives the wearer's hands mobility and protection needed for the task and avoids
cross-contamination of any evidence found (e.g., fingerprints).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive_Ordnance_Disposal" title="Explosive Ordnance Disposal"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">EOD</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> technicians wear bomb suits during reconnaissance,
'render safe' or disruption procedures on potential or confirmed explosive
threats. Such suits must provide a tremendous degree of protection from fragmentation,
blast overpressure, and thermal and tertiary effects should the threat device
detonate. At the same time, the suit can significantly hinder their mobility
or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_awareness" title="Situation awareness"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">situational awareness</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">To effectively stop a blast wave, thick layers
of Kevlar, foam, and plastic are needed to prevent serious bodily harm. Since
the entire body needs protection, the resulting bomb suit is heavy (80 pounds
(36 kg) or more), hot to the point of risking </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_stress" title="Heat stress"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">heat stress</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, and impairs
movement. The materials needed to make bomb suits protective do not release
body heat generated by the wearer. The result can be heat stress, which
can lead to illness and disorientation, reducing the wearer’s ability to
accomplish the task. The most recent models of bomb suits include
battery-operated cooling systems to prevent heat stress. One manufacturer’s
study claims that the internal cooling systems on 39 lbs and 81 lbs
bomb suits helped the wearer stay at workable temperatures for up to an hour,
even in a hot environment.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">It is used in Hazardous and Dangerous control</span></h2>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpHW3J95uzXbS8EFdF_DqcfrxovoHKvQYNUqdBaE5VUBkVbxxbJ3Tm3qtT5mfQaAVsgjOUdV0n7b4KV5WPLuEgiWb3rkzt6cowLD_7U3h6B4L5RGC7nm_CRg1dXcaP-As2g9xGryAQTI5enMQ97UHWvWLyqcSw9eBzW49VFuZoTfEVAzToi3B0kcVDmQ/s300/hazadous%20drug%20ppe.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="168" data-original-width="300" height="73" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpHW3J95uzXbS8EFdF_DqcfrxovoHKvQYNUqdBaE5VUBkVbxxbJ3Tm3qtT5mfQaAVsgjOUdV0n7b4KV5WPLuEgiWb3rkzt6cowLD_7U3h6B4L5RGC7nm_CRg1dXcaP-As2g9xGryAQTI5enMQ97UHWvWLyqcSw9eBzW49VFuZoTfEVAzToi3B0kcVDmQ/w130-h73/hazadous%20drug%20ppe.jpg" width="130" /></a></div>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">pharmacology</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, <b>Hazardous
drugs</b> are drugs that are known to cause harm, which may or may not
include <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotoxicity" title="Genotoxicity"><span style="color: #0645ad;">genotoxicity</span></a></i> (the
ability to cause a change or mutation in genetic material). Genotoxicity might
involve </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen"><i><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">carcinogenicity</span></i></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, the ability to cause </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">cancer</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> in animal models,
humans, or both; </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teratogenicity" title="Teratogenicity"><i><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">teratogenicity</span></i></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, which is the
ability to cause defects in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal" title="Fetal"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">fetal</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> development or fetal malformation; and lastly hazardous
drugs are known to have the potential to cause fertility impairment, which is a
major concern for most clinicians. These drugs can be classified as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antineoplastic" title="Antineoplastic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">antineoplastics</span></a></i>, cytotoxic agents,
biologic agents, antiviral agents, and immunosuppressive agents. This is why
safe handling of hazardous drugs is crucial.<o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Safe handling refers to the process in which
health care workers adhere to practices set forth by national health and safety
organizations that have been designed to eliminate or significantly reduce
occupational exposure. Some of these practices include but are not limited to,
donning personal protective equipment such as a disposable gown, gloves,
masks, and the utilization of a closed-system drug transfer device. The key to safe
handling is to protect the health care worker throughout the three phases of
contact with hazardous drugs. These phases are drug preparation,
administration, and disposal.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEislMXpBn2hyQma0H2K_WAZ3FpvhUuv_jAgtikxE43jdDcYGPuJPhPk2BAlaap1ZaJYE5VKZOW0MtcOQyNHen6fKQMJVpO54884tfeEkyH5xnJU1PKxg_9NBeFdqTJotM_vEDc4E_JrrYRRulkhw9VMaBSqHPIuqjwXKkowz2v99oWiLbMuZtnVa_r-Gg/s274/dangerous%20goods%20ppe.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="184" data-original-width="274" height="83" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEislMXpBn2hyQma0H2K_WAZ3FpvhUuv_jAgtikxE43jdDcYGPuJPhPk2BAlaap1ZaJYE5VKZOW0MtcOQyNHen6fKQMJVpO54884tfeEkyH5xnJU1PKxg_9NBeFdqTJotM_vEDc4E_JrrYRRulkhw9VMaBSqHPIuqjwXKkowz2v99oWiLbMuZtnVa_r-Gg/w123-h83/dangerous%20goods%20ppe.jpg" width="123" /></a></b></div><b>Dangerous goods</b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, abbreviated <b>DG</b>, are substances that when
transported are a risk to health, safety, property, or the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">environment</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Certain
dangerous goods that pose risks even when not being transported are known
as <b>hazardous materials</b> (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_abbreviation" title="Syllabic abbreviation"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">syllabically abbreviated</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> as <b>HAZMAT</b> or <b>hazmat</b>).<o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Hazardous materials are often subject to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_chemicals" title="Regulation of chemicals"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">chemical regulations</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Hazmat teams are personnel
specially trained to handle dangerous goods, which include materials that are </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive" title="Radioactive"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">radioactive</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable" title="Flammable"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">flammable</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">explosive</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosive" title="Corrosive"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">corrosive</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizer" title="Oxidizer"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">oxidizing</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxiant_gas" title="Asphyxiant gas"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">asphyxiating</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard" title="Biohazard"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">biohazardous</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">toxic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">pathogenic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">,
or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergen" title="Allergen"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">allergenic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Also
included are physical conditions such as compressed gases and liquids or hot
materials, including all goods containing such materials or chemicals, or may
have other characteristics that render them hazardous in specific
circumstances.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Dangerous goods are often indicated by
diamond-shaped signage on the item (see </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFPA_704" title="NFPA 704"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">NFPA 704</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">), its container, or the
building where it is stored. The color of each diamond indicates its hazard,
e.g., flammable is indicated with red because fire and heat are generally of
red color, and explosive is indicated with orange because mixing red
(flammable) with yellow (oxidizing agent) creates orange. A non-flammable and
nontoxic gas is indicated with green.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDmRBFJM9h0jd5S0ltXnFb6FikyruxUfWG0yt2qna9-jqUrH1FqYTqEWfjBapSoqjrZurqHUvCLgf18DpjrMM8SJnv7jJwvI0sqx7LIUD5eaddiaEh7EVUG0nMJnFgO1AKuyOlozXREjnYVnDeYV6hZLKMQDXgQBIWVA6e8EIgb8AVbzIJA1mShvyCQA/s301/arc%20flash%20ppe.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="167" data-original-width="301" height="75" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDmRBFJM9h0jd5S0ltXnFb6FikyruxUfWG0yt2qna9-jqUrH1FqYTqEWfjBapSoqjrZurqHUvCLgf18DpjrMM8SJnv7jJwvI0sqx7LIUD5eaddiaEh7EVUG0nMJnFgO1AKuyOlozXREjnYVnDeYV6hZLKMQDXgQBIWVA6e8EIgb8AVbzIJA1mShvyCQA/w135-h75/arc%20flash%20ppe.jpg" width="135" /></a></div>An <b>Arc flash</b> is the light and
heat produced as part of an <b>arc fault</b>, a type of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">electrical</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">explosion</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or discharge that
results from a connection through the air to the ground or another voltage phase in an
electrical system.<o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Arc flash is distinctly different from
the <b>arc blast</b>, which is the supersonic shockwave produced when the
uncontrolled arc vaporizes the metal conductors. Both are part of the same arc
fault and are often referred to as simply an arc flash, but from a safety
standpoint, they are often treated separately. For example, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">personal protective
equipment</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (PPE) can be used to effectively shield a
worker from the radiation of an arc flash, but that same PPE may likely be
ineffective against the flying objects, molten metal, and violent concussion
that the arc blast can produce. (For example, category-4 arc-flash protection,
similar to a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_suit" title="Bomb suit"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">bomb suit</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, is
unlikely to protect a person from the concussion of a very large blast,
although it may prevent the worker from being vaporized by the intense light of
the flash.) For this reason, other safety precautions are usually taken in
addition to wearing PPE, helping to prevent injury.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">There are many methods of protecting personnel from arc flash hazards.
This can include personnel wearing arc flash </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">personal
protective equipment</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> (PPE) or
modifying the design and configuration of electrical equipment. The best way to
remove the hazards of an arc flash is to de-energize electrical equipment when
interacting with it, however, de-energizing electrical equipment is in and of
itself an arc flash hazard. In this case, one of the newest solutions is to
allow the operator to stand far back from the electrical equipment by operating
equipment remotely, this is called remote racking.</span></p>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-24949430700600053572022-04-02T02:45:00.025+08:002022-07-10T19:33:10.956+08:00Early Step to live with Human Coronavirus Plague (hCP) and knowing it symptom – in Covid-19 New Normal<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_of_COVID-19" title="Transmission of COVID-19"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></a></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnxFRdqVaimFvI88_a4iPdsLHRgxVIl3ooItCi6FWsXuq-i6l3-adHGdKHR0u1G4DHD-bP8-Tl3MwkoUOPatclMDKVQGCAFLntuRSDmQmjqKvzi6JQCUNtMUEE5Hf3_Cx7-gI0ieUoCEGq6OJvakYqX9Du4zq5lWK77WwcZsyQtp-_OmcbP0ChNsTZtA/s275/4%20step%20to%20avoid%20covid.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnxFRdqVaimFvI88_a4iPdsLHRgxVIl3ooItCi6FWsXuq-i6l3-adHGdKHR0u1G4DHD-bP8-Tl3MwkoUOPatclMDKVQGCAFLntuRSDmQmjqKvzi6JQCUNtMUEE5Hf3_Cx7-gI0ieUoCEGq6OJvakYqX9Du4zq5lWK77WwcZsyQtp-_OmcbP0ChNsTZtA/w196-h130/4%20step%20to%20avoid%20covid.jpg" width="196" /></a></div><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Human Coronavirus Plague (hCP)</span></b> <span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">is a plague symptom triggered by spike protein shed from (Vaccinated Human to Human/Animal) (Vaccinated Animals to Human/Animal) is mainly transmitted when people breathe
in air contaminated by droplets and small </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_transmission" title="Airborne transmission"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">airborne</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> particles
containing the human coronavirus plague. The risk of breathing these in is
highest when people are in close proximity, but they can be inhaled over longer
distances, particularly indoors with poorly ventilated; in those conditions, small particles of human coronavirus plague can remain suspended in the air for
minutes to hours. Transmission can also occur if splashed or sprayed with
contaminated fluids in the eyes, nose, or mouth.</span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Infectivity</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of
human coronavirus plague (hCP) can begin one to three days before the onset of covid-19 symptoms. Vaccinated Infected persons can spread the plague disease even
if they are pre-symptomatic or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">asymptomatic</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Most
commonly, the peak viral load in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Upper respiratory tract"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">upper respiratory tract</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> samples occurs close to the time of symptom onset and
declines after the first week after symptoms begin. Current evidence
suggests a duration of viral shedding and the period of infectiousness of up to
ten days following symptom onset for persons with mild to moderate COVID-19,
and up to 20 days for persons with severe COVID-19, including
immunocompromised persons. The symptom plague is not being detected indoors if the vaccinated (subject) is in good and healthy conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><b style="color: black; font-size: medium;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 14.98px; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Human Coronavirus Plague (hCP) </span></b>is a plague symptom that appears in the early stage of infections before it starts to be Covid-19 disease, Knowing and treating this symptom in the early stage can save lives.</span><div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";">Experimental Covid-19 Vaccine
trigger Spike Protein and created Human Coronavirus Plague (hCP)</span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Many vaccine technologies being developed for
COVID‑19 are not like vaccines already in use to prevent </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">influenza</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, but rather are using
"next-generation" strategies for precise targeting of COVID‑19
infection mechanisms. Several synthetic vaccines use a 2P mutation
to lock the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein" title="Coronavirus spike protein"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">spike protein</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> into its prefusion configuration, stimulating an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_immune_response" title="Adaptive immune response"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">adaptive immune response</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to the virus before it attaches to a human cell.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Timelines for conducting clinical
research – normally a sequential process requiring years – are being
compressed into safety, efficacy, and dosing trials running simultaneously over
months, potentially compromising safety assurance. The rapid development and
urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID‑19 pandemic were expected to
increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Throughout the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">COVID-19
pandemic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">genome</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of SARS-CoV-2 viruses was </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequenced" title="Sequenced"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">sequenced</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> many
times, resulting in the identification of thousands of distinct </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variant_(biology)" title="Variant (biology)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">variants</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Many
of these possess </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">mutations</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> that change the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">amino
acid</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_sequence" title="Protein sequence"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">sequence</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of
the spike protein. In a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">World Health Organization</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> analysis
from July 2020, the spike (<i>S</i>) gene was the second most frequently
mutated in the genome, after </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORF1ab" title="ORF1ab"><i><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">ORF1ab</span></i></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (which
encodes most of the virus' </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_nonstructural_protein" title="Viral nonstructural protein"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">nonstructural proteins</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">).
The </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_rate" title="Evolution rate"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">evolution rate</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> in the spike gene is
higher than that observed in the genome overall. Analyses of SARS-CoV-2 genomes
suggest that some sites in the spike protein sequence, particularly in the
receptor-binding domain, are of evolutionary importance and are
undergoing </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_selection" title="Positive selection"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">positive selection</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">As of September 2020, clinical development
uses </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjuvants" title="Adjuvants"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">adjuvants</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to
enhance immunogenicity.</span><sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 8.5pt;"> </span></sup><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Specifically, an adjuvant may be used in formulating a COVID‑19
vaccine candidate to boost its immunogenicity and efficacy to reduce or prevent
COVID‑19 infection in vaccinated individuals, however, protection reduced
significantly in the months following vaccination.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Fully vaccinated individuals with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">breakthrough infections</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> have peak viral load similar to unvaccinated cases and
can efficiently transmit coronavirus plague infection in household settings.
However, the magnitude of transmission by individuals with Delta breakthrough
infections appears to be 50% increased in unvaccinated individuals vs than in
vaccinated individuals.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Spike proteins' role in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">COVID-19 vaccines</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. were said to
be dangerously "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytotoxic" title="Cytotoxic"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">cytotoxic</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">"
and mRNA vaccines containing them therefore in themselves dangerous. Spike
proteins were also said to be "shed" by vaccinated people, in an
erroneous allusion to the phenomenon of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_shedding" title="Vaccine shedding"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">vaccine-induced viral shedding</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, which is a rare effect of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine" title="Attenuated vaccine"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">live-virus vaccines</span></a><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> unlike those used for COVID-19. "Shedding" of
spike proteins is not possible.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Spike protein mutations raise concern because they may
affect </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">infectivity</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" title="Transmission (medicine)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">transmissibility</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, or facilitate </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_escape" title="Immune escape"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">immune
escape</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. The mutation </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartate" title="Aspartate"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">D</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">614</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">G</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> has
arisen independently in multiple viral lineages and </span><span style="background-color: transparent;">become dominant among
sequenced genomes; it may have advantages in infectivity and transmissibility
possibly due to increasing the density of spikes on the viral surface,
increasing the proportion of binding-competent conformations, or improving
stability, but it does not affect vaccines. The mutation N501Y is common to the
Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Omicron </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2" style="background-color: transparent;" title="Variants of SARS-CoV-2"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">Variants of SARS-CoV-2</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> has contributed to
enhanced infection and transmission, and reduced vaccine efficacy. The mutation
P681R alters the furin cleavage site and has been responsible for increased
infectivity, transmission, and global impact of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant" style="background-color: transparent;" title="SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">.
Mutations at position </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" style="background-color: transparent;" title="Glutamate"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">E</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">484,
particularly </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" style="background-color: transparent;" title="Glutamate"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">E</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">484</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysine" style="background-color: transparent;" title="Lysine"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">K</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, have been associated with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_escape" style="background-color: transparent;" title="Immune escape"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">immune
escape</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and reduced </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody" style="background-color: transparent;" title="Antibody"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">antibody</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-color: transparent; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> binding.</span></p><p></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">The </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> is
notable for having an unusually high number of mutations in the spike protein.
The SARS CoV-2 spike gene (S gene, S-gene) mutation 69–70del (Δ69-70) causes
a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermo_Fisher_Scientific" title="Thermo Fisher Scientific"><span style="color: #0645ad;">TaqPath</span></a> </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">PCR</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> test
probe to not bind to its S gene target, leading to S gene target failure (SGTF)
in SARS CoV-2 positive samples. This effect was used as a marker to monitor the
propagation of the </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Alpha variant</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> and
the </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Omicron variant</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span><div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";">Every Vaccinated Person can
be a high potential and efficient (hCP) spreader</span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">As of 31 March 2022, 11.99<span class="nowrap"> </span>billion COVID-19 vaccine doses have been administered
worldwide, with 70 percent of the global population having received at least
one dose. While 17.03<span class="nowrap"> </span>million vaccines were then
being administered daily, only 14.4 percent of people in low-income countries
had received at least a first vaccine by March 2022, according to official
reports from national health agencies. From this data, we can estimate that around 5
billion of the global population were being inoculated fully vaccinated with
covid-19 vaccine, and the data tick up-ward daily.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">The theory of human coronavirus plague (hCP) is
based on the mass global population being vaccinated and the redundancy of variant
resurfaces from covid-19 vaccine. Its symptoms are less dangerous and deadly in the early stage and can convert to very lethal and deadly when transform into
covid-19 disease.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In the early stage of human coronavirus plague
(hCP), people may feel mild headache, itching and stickiness in the skin and
throat, fatigue, muscle pain, sometimes confusion, and feel like to get a fever and cough. From this early stage,
paracetamol, honey, coconut water, orange juice, and other vitamins C-rich citrus
fruit can be used to get rid of any infection caused by this unsettled feeling.
Any mild unsettled feeling from vaccinated people can trigger spike protein
and become human coronavirus plague (hCP), to the people vaccinated or unvaccinated if one can cure it in early-stage, spike protein to trigger (hCP) can be halted. Vaccinated
people with still protected by vaccine immunity, can feel less infected compared
to the people who are unvaccinated, but vaccinated people with waning vaccine
immunity can easily infected and fall sick, from this rotation also trigger the human coronavirus plague (hCP) chain of a cluster.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">We must keep our body healthy and strengthen our immune system boosters by eating more fruits and vegetables that are rich in vitamin C, E, beta carotene, and zinc to halt the spike protein of human coronavirus plague (hCP), this small effort you take, can save one life. Covid-19 is yet the deadliest disease ever, and it potentially will stay forever in our lifetimes.</span></p>
<div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";">Preventive measures and a Healthy lifestyle in new normal </span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include
getting vaccinated, staying at home, wearing a mask in public, avoiding crowded
places, keeping distance from others, ventilating indoor spaces, managing potential
exposure durations, washing hands with soap and water often and for at
least twenty seconds, practicing good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding
touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">Those diagnosed with COVID‑19 or who believe they may be
infected are advised to be quarantined and stay home except to get medical care,
call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19#Face_masks_and_respiratory_hygiene"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">wear a
face mask</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> before entering the healthcare provider's office, and when
in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a
tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal
household items.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;">A </span><b style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;">healthy lifestyle</span></b><span style="text-align: left;"> is one that helps to keep
and improve people's </span><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health" style="text-align: left;" title="Health"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">health</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; text-align: left;"> and
well-being and overcome lots of stress. Many </span><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" style="text-align: left;" title="Government"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">governments</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; text-align: left;"> and </span><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" style="text-align: left;" title="Non-governmental organization"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">non-governmental organizations</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; text-align: left;"> work
in promoting healthy lifestyles. Healthy living is a lifelong effect. Being
healthy includes healthy eating, physical activities, weight management,
and </span><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_management" style="text-align: left;" title="Stress management"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">stress management</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; text-align: left;">.</span></div><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 6pt;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">A healthy lifestyle includes a </span><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_diet" title="Balanced diet"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">balanced
diet</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. This does not mean cutting out important food groups from your
diet or limiting yourself on the number of calories per day. A well-rounded
diet involves eating most food groups in every meal. Meats, dairy, fruits, and
vegetables are all important components of a meal that will ensure your body is
healthy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Common epidemiological warnings<o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The effect of repetitions covid-19 vaccine
intake is still under study and examination, but we are really sure it has a
consequences effect on the body and health of people vaccinated. The good of
science to develop pan coronavirus vaccine <span style="background: white;">has
been proposed to </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">prevent</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or mitigate future coronavirus </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">epidemics</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pandemics</span></a>. <span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Ahead to get an effective vaccine, we must see outcomes from the program on cases and
death statistics, at a time now, the vaccine program is the common righteous method for pandemic solutions to the people who are needed.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Public health and disease surveillance</span></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">It is important to note that most classical and modern biological
weapons' pathogens can be obtained from a virus, human, plant, or animal
that is naturally infected. The vaccine as a candidate is being targeted as a
bioweapon tool and it still has validity claim, investigation about it is
still undergoing. Before we get proven evidence of this claim and show it as
a bioweapon, the vaccine can’t be stopped. </span><o:p></o:p></span></h3><h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 14.98px;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">We are afraid of people who have malicious intentions to use this experimental covid-19 vaccine as a bioweapon to vaccine the animal population, vaccine can be used as a bioweapon to attack enemy nations' animal biodiversity. It can be dangerous for the human population in the near future if laws are not being set up. Triggering the human coronavirus plague is bad for animals and humans.</span></span></h3><h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0.05in;"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 14.98px;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Really missed your last prettiest vain, today life is unusual, not like before. Please use your good critical thinking thought for better decoding of this information.</span></span></h3>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-67624537523684223082022-03-05T02:30:00.000+08:002022-03-05T02:30:19.634+08:00Experimental Space debris - Polluted Space with no return<p><b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEigQxlskrk58LW0KpmZcbvNsjrLKmp14MagYZxHnZ3DJ_38qIl4zBnrR_cXYQx2PHNlU0Qzr4Q_i8OCgNvJpbTJnb75ZvhsXrrG1lXJ4q8NzjeYHLHaGZ7JmnsTkX1v8L0rTIWmY5p6dURvJufFU8_JWe36Wz45K56FCNCQxYsrXvs_-CT5ztHVmUXSng=s634" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="373" data-original-width="634" height="120" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEigQxlskrk58LW0KpmZcbvNsjrLKmp14MagYZxHnZ3DJ_38qIl4zBnrR_cXYQx2PHNlU0Qzr4Q_i8OCgNvJpbTJnb75ZvhsXrrG1lXJ4q8NzjeYHLHaGZ7JmnsTkX1v8L0rTIWmY5p6dURvJufFU8_JWe36Wz45K56FCNCQxYsrXvs_-CT5ztHVmUXSng=w205-h120" width="205" /></a></b></div><b>Space debris</b><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (also known as <b>space junk</b>, <b>space pollution</b>, </span><b>space waste</b>, <b>space trash</b>, or <b>space garbage</b>) is defunct artificial objects in
space—principally in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_orbit" title="Earth orbit"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Earth
orbit</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">—that no longer serve a useful function. These
include derelict spacecraft—nonfunctional spacecraft and abandoned launch
vehicle stages—mission-related debris, particularly numerous in Earth
orbit, fragmentation debris from the breakup of derelict rocket bodies and
spacecraft. In addition to derelict man-made objects left in orbit, other
examples of space debris include fragments from their disintegration, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">erosion</span></a>,<span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision" title="Collision"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">collisions</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or even paint flecks, solidified liquids
expelled from spacecraft, and unburned particles from solid rockets motors.
Space debris represents a risk to spacecraft.</span><p></p>
<span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">As of January 2021</span>, the <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network" title="United States Space Surveillance Network"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">US Space Surveillance Network</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> reported 21,901 artificial objects in
orbit above the Earth including 4,450 operational satellites.</span> However,
these are just objects that are large enough to be tracked. As of January 2019, more than 128 million pieces of debris smaller than
1 cm (0.4 in), about 900,000 pieces of debris 1–10 cm, and
around 34,000 pieces larger than 10 cm (3.9 in) were estimated to
be in orbit around the Earth. When the smallest objects of
artificial space debris (paint flecks, solid rocket exhaust particles, etc.)
are grouped with <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometeoroid" title="Micrometeoroid"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">micrometeoroids</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, they are together sometimes referred to by
space agencies as </span><b>MMOD</b> (Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris).
Collisions with debris have become a hazard to spacecraft; the smallest objects
cause damage akin to <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandblasting" title="Sandblasting"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">sandblasting</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, especially to solar panels and optics like
telescopes or </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker" title="Star tracker"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">star
trackers</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> that cannot easily be protected by a </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervelocity_ballistic_shield" title="Hypervelocity ballistic shield"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">ballistic</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipple_shield" title="Whipple shield"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">shield</span></a>.</span><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;">Debris keep growth</h2><div><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Space debris began to
accumulate in Earth orbit immediately with the first launch of an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_satellite" title="Artificial satellite"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">artificial satellite</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Sputnik
1</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> into orbit in October 1957. But even before
that, besides natural </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejecta" title="Ejecta"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">ejecta</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> from Earth, humans might have produced ejecta that
became space debris, as in the August 1957 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob#Pascal-B" title="Operation Plumbbob"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Pascal B test</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. After the launch of Sputnik, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">North American Aerospace Defense Command</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (NORAD) began compiling a database (the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Object_Catalog" title="Space Object Catalog"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Space Object Catalog</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">) of all known rocket launches and objects
reaching orbit: satellites, protective shields, and upper-stages of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">launch
vehicles</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">NASA</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> later published modified versions of the
database in a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-line_element_set" title="Two-line element set"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">two-line element set</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and beginning in the early 1980s the
CelesTrak </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" title="Bulletin board system"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">bulletin board system</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> re-published them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">During the 1980s, NASA and other U.S. groups attempted to limit
the growth of debris. One trial solution</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgDTprOSq4hPJu136Foh0FW3ciQ7i5yt-1S9vxKJK-OWYDc82gF5a8gIIYpPnd7zNFL7rXLYsY7eRxqwnq357_yQsYsrc77MXB-KFP2ZdP9A3psMxaB8NiL1oD-FWUZdtUUruEgpOIT4VOhbm7DFof_DUTiJQsfMJul0zomT7YNSJoJh_-tVkYFzYNx-w=s738" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="443" data-original-width="738" height="105" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgDTprOSq4hPJu136Foh0FW3ciQ7i5yt-1S9vxKJK-OWYDc82gF5a8gIIYpPnd7zNFL7rXLYsY7eRxqwnq357_yQsYsrc77MXB-KFP2ZdP9A3psMxaB8NiL1oD-FWUZdtUUruEgpOIT4VOhbm7DFof_DUTiJQsfMJul0zomT7YNSJoJh_-tVkYFzYNx-w=w175-h105" width="175" /></a></div>was implemented by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas" title="McDonnell Douglas"><span style="color: #0645ad;">McDonnell Douglas</span></a> for the Delta launch
vehicle by having the booster move away from its payload and vent any
propellant remaining in its tanks. This eliminated one source for pressure
buildup in the tanks which had previously caused them to explode and create
additional orbital debris. <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A new battery of studies followed as NASA, NORAD and others
attempted to better understand the orbital environment, with each adjusting the
number of pieces of debris in the critical-mass zone upward. Although in 1981
(when Schefter's article was published) the number of objects was estimated at
5,000 new detectors in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-based_Electro-Optical_Deep_Space_Surveillance" title="Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance</span></a> system
found new objects. By the late 1990s, it was thought that most of the 28,000
launched objects had already decayed and about 8,500 remained in orbit. By
2005 this was adjusted upward to 13,000 objects and a 2006 study increased
the number to 19,000 as a result of an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ASAT</span></a> test
and a satellite collision. In 2011, NASA said that 22,000 objects were
being tracked.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In the 2009 European Air and Space Conference, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southampton" title="University of Southampton"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">University
of Southampton</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> researcher Hugh Lewis predicted that the
threat from space debris would rise 50 percent in the next decade and quadruple
in the next 50 years. As of 2009, more than 13,000 close calls were tracked weekly.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A 2011 report by the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" title="National Research Council (United States)"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">U.S.
National Research Council</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> warned </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">NASA</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> that the amount of orbiting space debris was
at a critical level. According to some computer models, the amount of space
debris "has reached a tipping point, with enough currently in orbit to
continually collide and create even more debris, raising the risk of spacecraft
failures". The report called for international regulations limiting debris
and research of disposal methods.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">There are estimated to be over 128 million pieces of debris smaller than
1 cm (0.39 in) as of January 2019. There are approximately 900,000
pieces from 1 to 10 cm. The current count of large debris (defined as
10 cm across or larger</span>) is 34,000. The technical
measurement cutoff is c. 3 mm (0.12 in). As
of 2020, there are 8000 metric tons of debris in orbit with no signs of slowing
down.</div><div><br /></div><div><h3 style="background: white; margin-top: .05in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 107%;">A new Kessler effect</span></span></h3>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEht5HEMmA3VlbzK8_RrbPwXCaSOd56THcOJw3cjvLVPOZ7OMXEhGXrg-ZKkF0ITajUMAFnpwoAyEHtXtkaTZ7LaeHeuqUoLzL7xNZwtxgeina8d-g9WqubGmPvZV3BNBFk0npU1D7dl9ITVEIGBIMMlingmEv4TK5ZfJKF4_PqoaELsZMRyGbCf0TjLxA=s1200" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="1200" height="125" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEht5HEMmA3VlbzK8_RrbPwXCaSOd56THcOJw3cjvLVPOZ7OMXEhGXrg-ZKkF0ITajUMAFnpwoAyEHtXtkaTZ7LaeHeuqUoLzL7xNZwtxgeina8d-g9WqubGmPvZV3BNBFk0npU1D7dl9ITVEIGBIMMlingmEv4TK5ZfJKF4_PqoaELsZMRyGbCf0TjLxA=w188-h125" width="188" /></a></div>During the 1980s, the US Air Force (USAF) conducted an
experimental program to determine what would happen if debris collided with
satellites or other debris. The study demonstrated that the process differed
from micrometeoroid collisions, with large chunks of debris created which would
become collision threats. <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In 1991, Kessler published "Collisional cascading: The
limits of population growth in low Earth orbit with the best data then
available. Citing the USAF conclusions about the creation of debris, he wrote that
although almost all debris objects (such as paint flecks) were lightweight,
most of its mass was in debris about 1 kg (2 lb 3 oz) or
heavier. This mass could destroy a spacecraft on impact, creating more debris
in the critical-mass area. According to the National Academy of Sciences:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A
1 kg object impacting at 10 km/s, for example, is probably capable of
catastrophically breaking up a 1,000 kg spacecraft if it strikes a
high-density element in the spacecraft. In such a breakup, numerous fragments
larger than 1 kg would be created. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kessler's
analysis divided the problem into three parts. With a low-enough density, the
addition of debris by impacts is slower than their decay rate and the problem
is not significant. Beyond that is a critical density, where additional debris
leads to additional collisions. At densities beyond this critical mass
production exceeds decay, leading to a cascading <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">chain reaction</span></a> reducing
the orbiting population to small objects (several centimeters in size) and
increasing the hazard of space activity.</span></div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;">Debris generation and destruction</h2><div><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Every satellite, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_probe" title="Space probe"><span style="color: #0645ad;">space probe</span></a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crewed_mission" title="Crewed mission"><span style="color: #0645ad;">crewed mission</span></a> has the potential to
produce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"><span style="color: #0645ad;">space debris</span></a>. The
theoretical </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhVWcb4b75tAwmu2KUrzx6AlKZlWBBPQSkC_uvqwmGD2dHOZfvOAUJ-l85j-XbXLroFyNyip25r10ahWByNZkNOddeznr4NFB4uTuMSfqVA-j0-CK47Ak28B0hN0Y2N8f2I4OlO1mkMxJ9dPWcxlE6pEule5HtshwBQGqafYl1MM4uzQP_hSZBVdr35uw=s590" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="350" data-original-width="590" height="97" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhVWcb4b75tAwmu2KUrzx6AlKZlWBBPQSkC_uvqwmGD2dHOZfvOAUJ-l85j-XbXLroFyNyip25r10ahWByNZkNOddeznr4NFB4uTuMSfqVA-j0-CK47Ak28B0hN0Y2N8f2I4OlO1mkMxJ9dPWcxlE6pEule5HtshwBQGqafYl1MM4uzQP_hSZBVdr35uw=w163-h97" width="163" /></a></div>cascading Kessler syndrome becomes more likely as satellites in
orbit increase in number. As of 2014, there were about 2,000 commercial and
government satellites orbiting the earth, and as of 2021 more than 4,000.
It is estimated that there are 600,000 pieces of space junk ranging from 1
to 10 cm (<span role="math"><span class="num"><sup><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt;">1</span></sup></span><span class="frac"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">⁄</span></span><span class="den"><sub><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub></span></span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to
4 in), and 23,000 are larger than that. On average one satellite is
destroyed by collision with space junk each year. As of 2009, there
had been four collisions between cataloged objects, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_satellite_collision" title="2009 satellite collision"><span style="color: #0645ad;">a collision
between two satellites in 2009</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_decay" title="Orbital decay"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Orbital decay</span></a> is
much slower at altitudes where atmospheric drag is insignificant. Slight <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_drag" title="Atmospheric drag"><span style="color: #0645ad;">atmospheric drag</span></a>, lunar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbation_(astronomy)" title="Perturbation (astronomy)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">perturbation</span></a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind"><span style="color: #0645ad;">solar wind</span></a> drag can gradually bring
debris down to lower altitudes where fragments finally re-enter, but this
process can take millennia at very high altitudes.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A </span><b>zombie satellite</b> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">satellite</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> that begins communicating again after an
extended period of inactivity. It is a type of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">space debris</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">, which describes all defunct human-made objects
in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">outer
space</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">. At the end of their </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_life" title="Service life"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">service life</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">, the majority of satellites suffer from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_decay" title="Orbital decay"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">orbital decay</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and are destroyed by the heat of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_entry" title="Atmospheric entry"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">atmospheric entry</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Zombie satellites, however, maintain a stable
orbit but are either partially or completely inoperable, preventing operators
from communicating with them consistently.</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">One technology proposed to help deal with
fragments from </span>1 to 10 cm (<span class="num"><sup><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt;">1</span></sup></span><span class="frac"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">⁄</span></span><span class="den"><sub><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt;">2</span></sub></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> to 4 in) in size is the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_broom" title="Laser broom"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">laser broom</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">, a proposed multimegawatt land-based laser that could
deorbit debris: the side of the debris hit by</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjJajqCZPUp9VNGM-QPS5phVXKHMijQ82AlhlJerOzVP9an0oyeRdMobTGhV4ePvqTNq4TKqlYlmixdk8ij22Xv_CTcA8gmjWCTNPhiMsREZ3nVCzB19hbYT6f-a2tGwCiW9Isg8KxZQkHFKOfk6vrS0pLRLswajnYer3VuyQjRWuSww5fpzdyJ2jMgrA=s638" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="479" data-original-width="638" height="132" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjJajqCZPUp9VNGM-QPS5phVXKHMijQ82AlhlJerOzVP9an0oyeRdMobTGhV4ePvqTNq4TKqlYlmixdk8ij22Xv_CTcA8gmjWCTNPhiMsREZ3nVCzB19hbYT6f-a2tGwCiW9Isg8KxZQkHFKOfk6vrS0pLRLswajnYer3VuyQjRWuSww5fpzdyJ2jMgrA=w176-h132" width="176" /></a></div>the laser would <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablation" title="Ablation"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">ablate</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and create a thrust that would change the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">eccentricity</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of the remains of the fragment until it would re-enter
and be destroyed harmlessly. The momentum of the laser-beam </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">photons</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> could directly impart a thrust on the debris
sufficient to move small debris into new orbits out of the way of working
satellites. NASA research in 2011 indicates that firing a laser beam at a piece
of space junk could impart an impulse of 1 mm (0.039 in) per second,
and keeping the laser on the debris for a few hours per day could alter its
course by 200 m (660 ft) per day. One drawback is the
potential for material degradation; the energy may break up the debris, adding
to the problem</span>.<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">SpaceX</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">'s </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink" title="Starlink"><span style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">Starlink</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> program raises concern among many experts
about significantly worsening the possibility of Kessler Syndrome due to a
large number of satellites the program aims to place in LEO, as the program's
goal will more than double the satellites currently in LEO.</span> In
response to these concerns, SpaceX said that a large part of Starlink
satellites are launched at a lower altitude of 550 km to achieve lower
latency (versus 1,150 kilometers as originally planned), and failed satellites
or debris are thus expected to deorbit within five years even without
propulsion, due to atmospheric drag.</div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;">Dealing with debris</h2><div><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">An average of about one tracked object per day has been dropping
out of orbit for the past 50 years, averaging almost three objects per day
at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum"><span style="color: #0645ad;">solar maximum</span></a> (due
to the heating and expansion of the Earth's atmosphere), but one about every
three days at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum"><span style="color: #0645ad;">solar minimum</span></a>,
usually five and a half years later. In addition to natural atmospheric
effects, corporations, academics, and government agencies have proposed plans
and technology to deal with space debris, but as of November 2014, most of
these are theoretical, and there is no extant business plan for debris
reduction. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">A number of scholars have also observed that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution" title="Institution"><span style="color: #0645ad;">institutional factors</span></a>—political, legal,
economic, and cultural "rules of the game"—are the greatest
impediment to the cleanup of near-Earth space. There is little commercial
incentive to act since <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_externality" title="Negative externality"><span style="color: #0645ad;">costs are not assigned
to polluters</span></a>, though a number of technological solutions have been
suggested. However, effects to date are limited. In the US, governmental
bodies have been accused of backsliding on previous commitments to limit debris
growth, "let alone tackling the more complex issues of removing orbital
debris." The different methods for the removal of space debris have been
evaluated by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Generation_Advisory_Council" title="Space Generation Advisory Council"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Space
Generation Advisory Council</span></a>, including French astrophysicist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatoumata_K%C3%A9b%C3%A9" title="Fatoumata Kébé"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Fatoumata Kébé</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">There is no international treaty minimizing
space debris. However, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">United Nations
Committee on the </span></a></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhOCpBUau7t4BiBIXcoVPfsWA_SXyq_FkadVCuc5kdjv-Vx5FxHxWA2ptj-g7zvOYRUag66CFsk29jI1m_Edg_fcLuwER6EQfC-mgKCmFmqxLlqVn3P7pCWcB2lFhAtC4RZPef3FrEclQ7EzLNuDos9379MLMi4QIz7EYHn7IIP-czCIBBT5RtkkyiydA=s340" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="238" data-original-width="340" height="97" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhOCpBUau7t4BiBIXcoVPfsWA_SXyq_FkadVCuc5kdjv-Vx5FxHxWA2ptj-g7zvOYRUag66CFsk29jI1m_Edg_fcLuwER6EQfC-mgKCmFmqxLlqVn3P7pCWcB2lFhAtC4RZPef3FrEclQ7EzLNuDos9379MLMi4QIz7EYHn7IIP-czCIBBT5RtkkyiydA=w138-h97" width="138" /></a></div>Peaceful Uses of Outer Space<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> (COPUOS) published voluntary guidelines in 2007, using
a variety of earlier national regulatory attempts at developing standards for
debris mitigation. As of 2008, the committee was discussing international
"rules of the road" to prevent collisions between satellites By
2013, a number of national legal regimes existed typically instantiated in
the launch licenses that are required for a launch in all spacefaring </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; text-decoration-line: none;">nations</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The voluntary ISO standard also adopted the "25-year
rule" for the "LEO protected region" below 2,000 km
(1,200 mi) altitude that has been previously (and still is, as of 2019)
used by the US, ESA, and UN mitigation standards, and identifies it as "an
upper limit for the amount of time that a space system shall remain in orbit
after its mission is completed. Ideally, the time to deorbit should be as short
as possible (i.e., much shorter than 25 years)". <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span style="color: #202122; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Holger
Krag of the European Space Agency states that as of 2017 there is no binding
international regulatory framework with no progress occurring at the respective
UN body in Vienna.</span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-30873294830723467012022-02-04T00:50:00.004+08:002022-04-02T00:10:57.518+08:00Mass Formation Psychosis - in beneficial use<p><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhxbUZBukWRbEURn0QuoGiV9OWXck1ET0KAoEGtcjTeNXGa-0Y1TlMFTdVtvE_5uThSch-9ruO1yllut_fmlC2z5fBeonobn2pmTnMCspC87U3ob755-FMCG1N6YbCF2d05DMP6Njrfi3dnxT4eOjAjHos66wgarEk4bAqC6dfCZ1aO5CU2vOdr3LBUWw=s298" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="169" data-original-width="298" height="114" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhxbUZBukWRbEURn0QuoGiV9OWXck1ET0KAoEGtcjTeNXGa-0Y1TlMFTdVtvE_5uThSch-9ruO1yllut_fmlC2z5fBeonobn2pmTnMCspC87U3ob755-FMCG1N6YbCF2d05DMP6Njrfi3dnxT4eOjAjHos66wgarEk4bAqC6dfCZ1aO5CU2vOdr3LBUWw=w201-h114" width="201" /></a></div>The words <i>Mass Formation Psychosis</i> or <i>Mass</i> <i>hypnosis</i>-the madness of the crowd both derive from the
term <i>Hypnosis</i>, all of which was coined by Dr. <b>Robert
Wallace Malone</b> is an American <span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician" title="Physician"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">physician</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">biochemist</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. His early work focused on </span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">mRNA</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> technology of
which he was a pioneer, pharmaceuticals, and drug repurposing research. <i>Mass formation psychosis</i> was detected in the early Covid19 pandemic and is still an ongoing event after mass populations have been
vaccinated. Malone received criticism for propagating </span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">COVID-19
misinformation</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, including making claims about the toxicity
of </span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein" title="Coronavirus spike protein"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">spike
proteins</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> generated by some </span><span face="Calibri, "sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccines" title="COVID-19 vaccines"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">COVID-19 vaccines</span></a></span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.</span><p></p><p><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis"><b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Psychosis</span></b></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state characterized by a loss of contact with reality. <b>Psychosis</b> is an abnormal condition of
the </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind" title="Mind"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">mind</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> that results in
difficulties determining what is </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality" title="Reality"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">real</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and
what is not real. Symptoms may include </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">delusions</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">hallucinations</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, among other features. Additional symptoms are </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_disorder" title="Thought disorder"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">incoherent speech</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and behavior that is inappropriate for a given
situation. There may also be </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_problem" title="Sleep problem"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">sleep problems</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_withdrawal" title="Social withdrawal"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">social withdrawal</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, lack of motivation, and difficulties carrying out </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living" title="Activities of daily living"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">daily
activities</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Psychosis can have serious adverse
outcomes.</span></span></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEinEpaY0gO1USYrTGPGFskhRhM5knuPfnZLSog__b5EfnMwVtNlwWQ-FK7-K-YkzqNewBpQbY7Rgycv_m13ldLVDVPpIlJZxQxblR2AHfXjkbqJCPII0s2qdG9uoYz91MnWJqcLdLKntj6qVAYPqFdDUxpXhW8K1ONOphSucMVGI4_pJrXz5Ju6PEVm3A=s474" style="background-color: white; clear: right; display: inline; float: right; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="110" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEinEpaY0gO1USYrTGPGFskhRhM5knuPfnZLSog__b5EfnMwVtNlwWQ-FK7-K-YkzqNewBpQbY7Rgycv_m13ldLVDVPpIlJZxQxblR2AHfXjkbqJCPII0s2qdG9uoYz91MnWJqcLdLKntj6qVAYPqFdDUxpXhW8K1ONOphSucMVGI4_pJrXz5Ju6PEVm3A=w196-h110" width="196" /></a><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: Arial, "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Crowd Psychosis </span></b><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">A brief overview of Mass Formation, which was developed by Dr. Mattias
Desmet. </span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Psychologist and a statistician. University of Ghent, Belgium.</span><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background-color: white; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">
The conditions to set up mass formation psychosis include lack of social
connectedness and sense-making as well as large amounts of latent anxiety and
passive aggression. When people are inundated with a narrative that presents a
plausible “object of anxiety” and strategy for coping with it, then many
individuals group together to battle the object with a collective single-mindedness.
This allows people to stop focusing on their own problems, avoiding personal
mental anguish. Instead, they focus all their thought and energy on this
new object. As mass formation progresses, the group becomes increasingly bonded
and connected. Their field of attention is narrowed and they become unable to
consider alternative points of view. Leaders of the movement are revered,
unable to do no wrong.</span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Signs_and_symptoms">Mass Formation Psychosis to create acceptances in society</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">In sociology and psychology, <b>mass hysteria</b> is a
phenomenon that transmits collective </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">illusions</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of
threats, whether real or imaginary, through a population and society as a
result of rumors and fear. In medicine, the term is used to describe the
spontaneous manifestation—or production of chemicals in the body—of the same or
similar hysterical physical </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptom" title="Symptom"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">symptoms</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> by
more than one person. A common type of mass hysteria occurs when a group of
people believes that it is suffering from a similar </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease" title="Disease"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">disease</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or
ailment or <i>epidemic hysteria.<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">There are numerous applications for hypnosis across multiple fields of
interest, including medical/psychotherapeutic uses, military uses,
self-improvement, and entertainment. The </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">American
Medical Association</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> currently has
no official stance on the medical use of hypnosis.</span></span></div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Signs_and_symptoms">Herd Immunity and Vaccine Efficacy acceptances</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjRTvxyyUwtp1T-14hsHWYSXDXvIqD9NNZga5rzKz_ZVTOdcKN6aWroBEDNrYIiH3qPbXdMez8yy3LNeotjtPB4uylR_YYWj-PSV9NMCq62_3ZJ6LtACPYP-nSpnSVIbUpdXMp5UiBFMStX91fpp2OgYUs9YcBm280Iwme-8tgxigMW_64m7qHXWhYPLA=s474" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="306" data-original-width="474" height="116" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjRTvxyyUwtp1T-14hsHWYSXDXvIqD9NNZga5rzKz_ZVTOdcKN6aWroBEDNrYIiH3qPbXdMez8yy3LNeotjtPB4uylR_YYWj-PSV9NMCq62_3ZJ6LtACPYP-nSpnSVIbUpdXMp5UiBFMStX91fpp2OgYUs9YcBm280Iwme-8tgxigMW_64m7qHXWhYPLA=w179-h116" width="179" /></a></div>The <b>COVID-19
pandemic</b> is an ongoing global </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pandemic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019" title="Coronavirus disease 2019"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">coronavirus
disease 2019</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (COVID-19)
caused by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (SARS-CoV-2). The </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel_virus" title="Novel virus"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">novel virus</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> was first identified from an outbreak in the Chinese
city of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Wuhan</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> in December 2019 and attempts to contain it there failed,
allowing it to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory" title="COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">spread across the globe</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">.<o:p></o:p></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_symptoms" title="COVID-19 symptoms"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">COVID-19
symptoms</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> range from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">undetectable</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> to deadly but most commonly include headaches, fever, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cough#Classification" title="Cough"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">dry cough</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and fatigue. Severe illness is more likely in elderly
patients and those with certain underlying medical conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">A <b>COVID‑19 vaccine</b> is
a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">vaccine</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> intended to provide </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquired_immunity" title="Acquired immunity"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">acquired immunity</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> against </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus that causes (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119" title="COVID‑19"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">COVID‑19</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">). The COVID‑19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing
the severity and death caused by COVID‑19.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">As of
1 February 2022, 10.1<span class="nowrap"> </span>billion doses of
COVID‑19 vaccines have been administered worldwide based on official reports
from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">national public health agencies</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Prior to COVID‑19, a vaccine for an infectious disease had never been
produced in less than several years – and no vaccine existed for
preventing a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus" title="Coronavirus"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">coronavirus</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> infection in humans.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">After a few years of gaining
data from various media and trusted scientific sources about the side effect of the
vaccine, results show some vaccines produced more severe symptoms and illnesses than
coronavirus common symptom itself. Mutant escape (variant) from vaccine also
resurfaces and no proof to the repetitive covid19 vaccine is good for human health. We are already seeing severe neurological side effects after being vaccinated.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Super Power nation, Big Tech,
Big Media, and Big Pharmaceutical industry play a bigger role in mass hypnosis entire
population with characteristics of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Efficacy"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">efficacy</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Effectiveness"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">effectiveness</span></a>,<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and safety of the vaccine. This type of mass
hypnosis also applies to another advanced medical offering, the main point is to make
people healthy and have super immunity to prevent the future wild pandemic disease. During a pandemic, without proper mass formation psychosis technic, it is very hard to encounter
people unwilling to be vaccinated due to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy" title="Vaccine hesitancy"><span face="Arial, "sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; text-decoration-line: none;">vaccine
hesitancy</span></a>.<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">With this advanced research of vaccines and medications, it can benefit to human population entirely,
we can see in coming years, our predict before the year 2050?, the world population
can be added 1-fold of the entire population from current counting. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal">
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">But from the side of conservative hypotheses quotes by Luc Montagnier is a
French </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virology" title="Virology"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">virologist</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> and joint recipient of the 2008 </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> for his discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus (</span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" title="HIV"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">HIV</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">) –
"People who take vaccine will go the heaven in two years’ time". If
these hypotheses occur in the next few years, it can reduction of 6-fold of the entire
population and trigger Armageddon-like events.</span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Signs_and_symptoms">Mass Formation Psychosis to help people move in directions</span></h2></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Hallucinations">Towards - Saving Planet Earth</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh5HaETHJJVYbwUD98H34LnbtvTMkDy11BE9VnwDPvu_65cSk-1OJwb4VXfxGS7SLGdeLoOJYDv6O1ChpIYqlQLSzLJ_jKZKJEvzEyx0gYTUriKxjwsOcLLfnZ5izenOKP_xLal6qrMOVp1MHWwIvJMflE2lLc310_xphZzCb1aA4Z1ndkTpoJGDF4hNw=s275" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="119" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh5HaETHJJVYbwUD98H34LnbtvTMkDy11BE9VnwDPvu_65cSk-1OJwb4VXfxGS7SLGdeLoOJYDv6O1ChpIYqlQLSzLJ_jKZKJEvzEyx0gYTUriKxjwsOcLLfnZ5izenOKP_xLal6qrMOVp1MHWwIvJMflE2lLc310_xphZzCb1aA4Z1ndkTpoJGDF4hNw=w178-h119" width="178" /></a></div>"All the animals we’ll see over the course
of the series are disappearing because of one species: Humans". We know
that we are using more than our fair share of the planet and its resources and
we must now redress this imbalance. Any effort to do so – no matter how big or
small – is valuable, if we wish to ensure a future that is healthy for all life
on planet Earth so we have to save earth from various types of Pollution, Waste
food, Drained Water, etc. The earth is our mother planet in which we were born and
understand learn to speak, learn to walk, and learn everything that we are now
able to do. It is the only planet in our solar system on which life exists which
incredible biodiversity. People all over the world celebrate this grand event
all to protect flora and fauna and clean up the earth on which we live. Our
life will be wasted if we have no goal. Without any goal, we will feel
unlucky, waste life, etc. But if we don't Save Planet Earth then, our Earth will
be destroyed and we can't live. So, Save Planet Earth.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">To prepare the earth with an additional population is a very difficult task,
using mass hysteria to crated fear in people about the earth in dire conditions, is
like no really impacted. The government must use mandate, enforcement, and any
pushing to the higher limit style, to force the entire population to obey. It also
can be a waste of money, energy, and resources, if the population who benefited from novel
vaccines and prudent advancement of medication still acts and think like naïve to
respond to the saving planet earth narrative.</span></span></div></span><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Hallucinations">Towards - Exercise</span></h3></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiHFXpPEYWUx5aoFUIFh8PmjJ_KlsbVEBp9PYGGB2Yl3LQtSRcFXM6r9ZzueoedRG8kU7riy2kOKBq0Q4AV0PU2lkDJJVA12Kee3WFoQJazAK2niBe0xnsz3_LMz3yyqgKTyvW9bTtL4rD-1hzgI3EsEMetEv_cPj2o1qGT2JrJrpL8gqurFSbEeFlImg=s270" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="187" data-original-width="270" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiHFXpPEYWUx5aoFUIFh8PmjJ_KlsbVEBp9PYGGB2Yl3LQtSRcFXM6r9ZzueoedRG8kU7riy2kOKBq0Q4AV0PU2lkDJJVA12Kee3WFoQJazAK2niBe0xnsz3_LMz3yyqgKTyvW9bTtL4rD-1hzgI3EsEMetEv_cPj2o1qGT2JrJrpL8gqurFSbEeFlImg=w192-h133" width="192" /></a></b></div><b>Exercise</b></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> is any </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">bodily</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> activity
that enhances or maintains </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness" title="Physical fitness"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">physical
fitness</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and overall </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health" title="Health"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">health</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and
wellness. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">It is performed for various reasons, to aid growth and improve
strength, prevent </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">aging</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, develop </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">muscles</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and
the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" title="Cardiovascular system"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">cardiovascular system</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, honing </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport" title="Sport"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">athletic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> skills, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">weight
loss</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> or maintenance, improve health, or simply for
enjoyment. Many individuals choose to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outdoor_fitness" title="Outdoor fitness"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">exercise
outdoors</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and
improve </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">well-being</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;"> as well as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">mental
health</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; margin: 6pt 0in;">
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">In
terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the
goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person. Even doing a small
amount of exercise is healthier than doing none.</span></p></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-34686317070511796492022-01-06T17:00:00.000+08:002022-01-06T17:00:25.412+08:00Thwaites Glacier - And Drastic Sea Level Rise<p><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhhY7Zo6yUFs9Qo-Am_1YRdcdNS5o_D7832VaLpvBLoxrmfSzUY62RFQP8nJmHurhUdbwS_qZLk_J6Ap5_z_6FYewUbdt4m_Y4zTafbBOIJ7abwsc_vo9WGJzegeFc4jRDz4kLrsJQg0YLs-LX68KfT-jedEcoFA54J67lb_bAi3aVrCa4FkIf3obn5dA=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="320" data-original-width="474" height="107" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhhY7Zo6yUFs9Qo-Am_1YRdcdNS5o_D7832VaLpvBLoxrmfSzUY62RFQP8nJmHurhUdbwS_qZLk_J6Ap5_z_6FYewUbdt4m_Y4zTafbBOIJ7abwsc_vo9WGJzegeFc4jRDz4kLrsJQg0YLs-LX68KfT-jedEcoFA54J67lb_bAi3aVrCa4FkIf3obn5dA=w158-h107" width="158" /></a></b></div><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Thwaites Glacier</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> sometimes referred to as the </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Doomsday Glacier</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">is an unusually broad and vast </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Glacier">glacier</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> flowing into </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_Island_Bay" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pine Island Bay">Pine Island Bay</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, part of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amundsen_Sea" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amundsen Sea">Amundsen Sea</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, east of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Murphy" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mount Murphy">Mount Murphy</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, on the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walgreen_Coast" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Walgreen Coast">Walgreen Coast</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Byrd_Land" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marie Byrd Land">Marie Byrd Land</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Its surface speeds exceed 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) per year near its </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounding_line" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Grounding line">grounding line</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. Its fastest-flowing grounded ice is centered between 50 and 100 kilometers (31 and 62 mi) east of Mount Murphy. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">It was named by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Antarctic_Names" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names">ACAN</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> after Fredrik T. Thwaites, a glacial geologist, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Geomorphology">geomorphologist</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><p></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Thwaites Glacier is closely watched for its potential to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level rise">raise sea levels</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Along with the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_Island_Glacier" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pine Island Glacier">Pine Island Glacier</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, it</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjepW8S3kPlB9oo3xz9tn9cC1MV8UxbHQPP4naIzyO-9VVkE1V9izyFJDqTIkiW8wQzRoSPOxBznCUFe9ayB8beESxtTywqZJXvMyUKr1jbvw12mn8FPa5lgAV9rg2hgqpGCEuEnp9mB4lDmUR-UgR482o5dZpjE6CbZ6Rfjhq8JRd4cy5vswtXqe7tCw=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="72" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjepW8S3kPlB9oo3xz9tn9cC1MV8UxbHQPP4naIzyO-9VVkE1V9izyFJDqTIkiW8wQzRoSPOxBznCUFe9ayB8beESxtTywqZJXvMyUKr1jbvw12mn8FPa5lgAV9rg2hgqpGCEuEnp9mB4lDmUR-UgR482o5dZpjE6CbZ6Rfjhq8JRd4cy5vswtXqe7tCw=w129-h72" width="129" /></a></div>has been described as part of the "weak underbelly" of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="West Antarctic Ice Sheet">West Antarctic Ice Sheet</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, due to its apparent vulnerability to significant retreat. This hypothesis is based on both theoretical studies of the stability of marine ice sheets and observations of large changes in these two glaciers. In recent years, the flow of both of these glaciers has accelerated, their surfaces have lowered, and their grounding lines have retreated.</span><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Since the 1980s, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thwaites_glacier" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thwaites glacier">Thwaites glacier</a>, nicknamed the "Doomsday glacier", has had a net loss of over 600 billion tons of ice, though <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinning_points" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pinning points">pinning</a> of the Thwaites Ice Shelf has served to slow the process. The Thwaites Ice Shelf has acted as a dam for the eastern portion of the glacier, bracing it and allowing for a slow melt rate, in contrast to the undefended western portion.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2021 the ice shelf was predicted to disintegrate in a decade, and as soon as 2026. This will accelerate the melting of Thwaites Glacier by about 25%, and increase its contribution to global <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level rise">sea-level rise</a> from 4% to 5%.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Research">Research</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In 2011, using geophysical data collected from flights over Thwaites Glacier (data collected under NASA's IceBridge campaign), a study by scientists at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory showed a rock feature, a ridge 700 meters tall that helps anchor the glacier and helped slow the glacier's slide into the sea. The study also confirmed the importance of seafloor topography in predicting how the glacier will behave in the near future.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> However, the glacier has been considered to be the biggest threat on relevant time scales, for rising seas, current studies aim to better quantify retreat and possible impacts.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Extensive calving at the marine terminus of Thwaites Glacier is monitored by remote sensing and seismological observations, with the largest events being seismically detectable at ranges up to 1600 km.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi2-cXw0MA-FyYbCewduiICylqcd9-vqENuQnvzCollkoUcefUI2LWBggHRXDy0D3x6CMBRtP9wsO1qylgecDEp0FVD_ZpCUnUoEDGltzO0SmEzJohwntYflnFDZnil2tu2Dh7PwWQtkVubxPDEZbkz4vTQxnJlBj9i-Vb4hu1Czm4AAyVAPB-wZIue5g=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="82" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi2-cXw0MA-FyYbCewduiICylqcd9-vqENuQnvzCollkoUcefUI2LWBggHRXDy0D3x6CMBRtP9wsO1qylgecDEp0FVD_ZpCUnUoEDGltzO0SmEzJohwntYflnFDZnil2tu2Dh7PwWQtkVubxPDEZbkz4vTQxnJlBj9i-Vb4hu1Czm4AAyVAPB-wZIue5g=w145-h82" width="145" /></a></div>Water drainage beneath the glacier - Swamp-like canal areas and streams underlie the glacier. The upstream swamp canals feed streams with dry areas between the streams which retard the flow of the glacier. Due to this friction, the glacier is considered stable in the short term.</span></div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Research">Sea level rise</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Tide gauge measurements show that the current global </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">sea-level rise</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> began at the start of the 20th century. Between 1900 and 2017, the globally averaged </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level">sea level</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> rose by </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">16–21 cm (</span><span class="frac" role="math" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; white-space: nowrap;">6<span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 1px;">+</span><span class="num" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: super;">1</span>⁄<span class="den" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: sub;">2</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">–</span><span class="frac" role="math" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; white-space: nowrap;">8<span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 1px;">+</span><span class="num" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: super;">1</span>⁄<span class="den" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: sub;">2</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> in).</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> More precise data gathered from satellite </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Radar">radar</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> measurements reveal an accelerating rise of 7.5 cm (3 in) from 1993 to 2017,</span><sup class="reference nowrap" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 1554"> </span></sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> for an average rate of </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">31 mm (</span><span class="frac" role="math" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; white-space: nowrap;">1<span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 1px;">+</span><span class="num" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: super;">1</span>⁄<span class="den" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: sub;">4</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> in) per decade. This acceleration is due mostly to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, which includes </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ocean heat content">heating of the ocean</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> and melting of the land-based </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_sheet" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Glacier">glaciers</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Between 1993 and 2018, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> of water contributed 42% to sea-level rise; melting of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_glacier" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Temperate glacier">temperate glaciers</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, 21%; </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenland">Greenland</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, 15%; and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, 8%.</span><sup class="reference nowrap" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 1576"> </span></sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Climate scientists expect the rate to further accelerate during the 21st century, with the latest measurements saying the sea levels are currently rising by 3.6 mm per year.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Projecting future sea levels is challenging, due to the complexity of many aspects of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate system">climate system</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> and to time lags in sea level reactions to Earth temperature changes. As </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climatology">climate research</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> into past and present<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEigfPk0IoJTuQ_Me_GhS2lOVZBSu34Xg2MBcvIn1jd7S83pX6NaHiGzHH7X1UWDQtAUeU8U6lkuaTBD1LS5CkNT0BckUIZl8KCFhSiWiz_87IIA_0gdlkN6aWezAA-KVjfz1vwD6L4G4dwH5iLVCbO2V8b96VDI_nUs6MYyi7LhXSLWdMudkdVanjyX2w=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="302" data-original-width="474" height="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEigfPk0IoJTuQ_Me_GhS2lOVZBSu34Xg2MBcvIn1jd7S83pX6NaHiGzHH7X1UWDQtAUeU8U6lkuaTBD1LS5CkNT0BckUIZl8KCFhSiWiz_87IIA_0gdlkN6aWezAA-KVjfz1vwD6L4G4dwH5iLVCbO2V8b96VDI_nUs6MYyi7LhXSLWdMudkdVanjyX2w=w201-h128" width="201" /></a></div>sea levels leads to improved </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_model" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate model">computer models</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, projections have consistently increased. In 2007, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (IPCC) projected a high-end estimate of 60 cm (2 ft) through 2099,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> but their 2014 report raised the high-end estimate to about 90 cm (3 ft). </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In February 2021, a paper published in </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Science_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ocean Science (journal)">Ocean Science</a></i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> suggested that past projections for global sea-level rise by 2100 reported by the IPCC were likely conservative and that sea levels will rise more than previously expected.</span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The sea level will not rise uniformly everywhere on Earth, and it will even drop slightly in some locations, such as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arctic">Arctic</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Local factors include </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonic" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> effects and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidence" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> of the land, tides, currents, and storms. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_humans" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Effects of climate change on humans">Sea level rises can affect human populations</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> considerably in coastal and island regions.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Widespread </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_flooding" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coastal flooding">coastal flooding</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> is expected with several degrees of warming sustained for millennia.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Further effects are higher storm surges and more dangerous tsunamis, displacement of populations, loss, and degradation of agricultural land, and damage in cities.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Natural environments like </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> are also affected, with fish, birds, and plants losing parts of their habitat.</span></div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Contributions">Contributions</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The three main reasons warming causes global sea level to rise are: oceans <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion#Expansion_in_liquids" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thermal expansion">expand</a>, ice sheets lose ice </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhILuQaeQ8oXW9F5MzuT6WS7Q-ChygmhSBQdcolPf9n26qMoa0U8J41yIMvGTDwK6Jxr3Wh1xppN0uDm_9umJ35cPd-dZznYaZSMCjwMZm2yhoMfH7gARmPWFQXbG7HkAn0oRcQLIGTIHkt5KuYmIs32--9d9iNfyc_0rn-fVx1NOBTHWH1QJen_gsTTw=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="315" data-original-width="474" height="96" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhILuQaeQ8oXW9F5MzuT6WS7Q-ChygmhSBQdcolPf9n26qMoa0U8J41yIMvGTDwK6Jxr3Wh1xppN0uDm_9umJ35cPd-dZznYaZSMCjwMZm2yhoMfH7gARmPWFQXbG7HkAn0oRcQLIGTIHkt5KuYmIs32--9d9iNfyc_0rn-fVx1NOBTHWH1QJen_gsTTw=w144-h96" width="144" /></a></div>faster than it forms from snowfall, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> at higher altitudes also melt. Sea level rise since the start of the 20th century has been dominated by the retreat of glaciers and expansion of the ocean, but the contributions of the two large ice sheets (Greenland and Antarctica) are expected to increase in the 21st century. The ice sheets store most of the land ice (∼99.5%), with a sea-level equivalent (SLE) of 7.4 m (24 ft 3 in) for Greenland and 58.3 m (191 ft 3 in) for Antarctica.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Each year about 8 mm (<span class="frac" role="math" style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="num" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: super;">5</span>⁄<span class="den" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: sub;">16</span></span> in) of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation#Measurement" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Precipitation">precipitation (liquid equivalent)</a> falls on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_ice_sheet" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctic ice sheet">ice sheets in Antarctica</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland</a>, mostly as snow, which accumulates and over time forms glacial ice. Much of this precipitation began as water vapor evaporated from the ocean surface. Some of the snow is blown away by wind or disappears from the ice sheet by melt or by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a> (directly changing into water vapor). The rest of the snow slowly changes into ice. This ice can flow to the edges of the ice sheet and return to the ocean by melting at the edge or in the form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceberg" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a>. If precipitation, surface processes, and ice loss at the edge <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_mass_balance" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Glacier mass balance">balance</a> each other, sea levels remain the same. However, scientists have found that ice is being lost and at an accelerating rate.</p></span><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Effects">Effects</span></h2></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Current and future sea-level rise is set to have a number of impacts, particularly on </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coast">coastal</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> systems. Such impacts include increased </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_erosion" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, higher </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_surge" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Storm surge">storm-surge</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> flooding, inhibition of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_production" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Primary production">primary production</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> processes, more extensive coastal inundation, changes in surface </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water quality">water quality</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> and<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjX1rsjxjIb4l7jUnZc0_SxpPV9TzaVPPF0cT2m1jjLjeN1oAH3Fznb1wi5L245952VcFF157w_MNytniBEYVEXSmSH05l558IiE3aIwfrFpwdhE2mR4xafEuglpCfzEU_VP8Q3n7v8REpZUZnqtZDxN-8MG6MRa-YHUwnBf36vEba8mZJrVvw-0AD98Q=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="474" height="101" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjX1rsjxjIb4l7jUnZc0_SxpPV9TzaVPPF0cT2m1jjLjeN1oAH3Fznb1wi5L245952VcFF157w_MNytniBEYVEXSmSH05l558IiE3aIwfrFpwdhE2mR4xafEuglpCfzEU_VP8Q3n7v8REpZUZnqtZDxN-8MG6MRa-YHUwnBf36vEba8mZJrVvw-0AD98Q=w142-h101" width="142" /></a></div>groundwater characteristics, increased loss of property and coastal habitats, increased flood risk and potential loss of life, loss of non-monetary cultural resources and values, impacts on agriculture and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> through a decline in soil and water quality, and loss of tourism, recreation, and transportation functions. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Many of these impacts are detrimental. Owing to the great diversity of coastal environments; regional and local differences in projected relative sea level and climate changes; and differences in the resilience and adaptive capacity of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, sectors, and countries, the impacts will be highly variable in time and space. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="River delta">River deltas</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> in Africa and Asia and small island states are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In addition to rising sea levels, other effects of climate change can heavily impact the influence on populations. Coastal flooding is accelerated by deforestation and change or extremes in weather conditions. Regions that are already vulnerable to the rising sea level also struggle with coastal flooding washing away land and altering the landscape.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> People in these areas struggle increasingly because of these different effects of climate change. Climate change-influenced storms also create a greater frequency of coastal flooding.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A 2020 review of 33 publications found that "most global estimates are in the order of tens or hundreds of millions of people exposed to coastal inundation and coastal flooding for different timeframes and scenarios" due to sea-level rise.</span></div><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Long-term_sea_level_rise">Long-term sea-level rise - Projections</span></h3><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Both the Greenland ice sheet and Antarctica have </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> for warming levels that could be reached before the end of the 21st century. Crossing such tipping points would mean that ice-sheet changes are <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgoon0AYMv-peV8z-WuWfgxlTMx_CmuYncYTWh9AEI0raXjnpu4ObiwgmwLKk0yVMOPVVP4z6cj2e5ylxZIMTYRvWvFbnWeCzZYgacxzrVb4pg2V9ov3GZKiAvmVonlddH56G3F4-U_bwLuffwJBDjq5KhdGJPigh5OeTS-fUG4zvFf5mJCuSaK4eB2DA=s474" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="355" data-original-width="474" height="101" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgoon0AYMv-peV8z-WuWfgxlTMx_CmuYncYTWh9AEI0raXjnpu4ObiwgmwLKk0yVMOPVVP4z6cj2e5ylxZIMTYRvWvFbnWeCzZYgacxzrVb4pg2V9ov3GZKiAvmVonlddH56G3F4-U_bwLuffwJBDjq5KhdGJPigh5OeTS-fUG4zvFf5mJCuSaK4eB2DA=w134-h101" width="134" /></a></div>potentially irreversible: a decrease to pre-industrial temperatures may not stabilize the ice sheet once the tipping point has been crossed.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Quantifying the exact temperature change for which this tipping point is crossed remains controversial. For Greenland, estimates roughly range between 1 and 4 °C (2 to 7 °F) above pre-industrial.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> As of 2020</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, the lower of these values has already been passed. A 2021 analysis of sub-glacial sediment at the bottom of a 1.4 km Greenland ice core finds that the Greenland ice sheet melted away at least once during the last million years, and therefore strongly suggests that its tipping point is below the 2.5 °C maximum positive temperature excursion over that period.</span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A 2013 study estimated that each degree of temperature rise translates to a 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) commitment to sea-level rise within the next 2,000 years.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> More recent research, especially into Antarctica, indicates that this is probably a conservative estimate and true long-term sea-level rise might be higher.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Warming beyond the 2 °C (3.6 °F) target potentially leads to rates of sea-level rise dominated by ice loss from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. Continued carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel sources could cause additional tens of meters of sea-level rise, over the next millennia, and the available fossil fuel on Earth is even enough to ultimately melt the entire Antarctic ice sheet, causing about 58 m (190 ft) of sea-level rise.</span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-57733411674918674782021-12-06T22:00:00.002+08:002021-12-07T14:52:14.208+08:00Biodiversity - Human Impacts<p><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"></b></p><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b>Biodiversity</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is the </span><b>biological variety</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_variability" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genetic variability"><b>variability</b></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-weight: 400; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Life">life on Earth</a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Biodiversity is a measure of variation <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjh1rLBuXyMHxd14WoFORx_mxXtmQPKLPvTjR5qan4DGxxPgevD5qg_-7L3KWCWBUbbAeP7VFRNPKCCY4AkwV2Gw7F-nKNK3ia-4E4j59fej49eMlRCRj_wSVSCPgVzbA89qtIIMcumbsCsFC-CnAAytN4pqb6wIhQCWZW6SYD0n9Z4U8_b5rIj6ZwVpg=s768" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="516" data-original-width="768" height="112" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjh1rLBuXyMHxd14WoFORx_mxXtmQPKLPvTjR5qan4DGxxPgevD5qg_-7L3KWCWBUbbAeP7VFRNPKCCY4AkwV2Gw7F-nKNK3ia-4E4j59fej49eMlRCRj_wSVSCPgVzbA89qtIIMcumbsCsFC-CnAAytN4pqb6wIhQCWZW6SYD0n9Z4U8_b5rIj6ZwVpg=w167-h112" width="167" /></a></div>at the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genetics">genetic</a><span>, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Species">species</a><span>, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a><span> levels.</span><span> Terrestrial biodiversity is usually greater near the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Equator">equator</a><span>,</span><span> which is the result of the warm </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate">climate</a><span> and high </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Primary productivity">primary productivity</a><span>.</span><span> Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Earth">Earth</a><span> and is richer in the tropics.</span><span> These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than ten percent of the earth's surface and contain about ninety percent of the world's species.</span><span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_biology" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine biology">Marine biodiversity</a><span> is usually higher along coasts in the Western </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a><span>, where </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a><span> is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans.</span><span> There are </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a><span>.</span><span> Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity hotspot">hotspots</a><span>,</span><span> and has been increasing through time,</span><span> but will be likely to slow in the future as a primary result of deforestation.</span><span> It encompasses the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life.</span></div></span></div></b><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The period since the emergence of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humans" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Humans">humans</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">. Named the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, the reduction is caused primarily by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human impact on the environment">human impacts</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, particularly </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> destruction.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Health">human health</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> in a number of ways, although a few negative effects are studied.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United Nations">United Nations</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> designated 2011–2020 as the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Decade_on_Biodiversity" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United Nations Decade on Biodiversity">United Nations Decade on Biodiversity</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and 2021–2030 as the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> According to a 2019 </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Assessment_Report_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> by </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPBES" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPBES">IPBES</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> 25% of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction as the result of human activity.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> An October 2020 IPBES report found the same human actions which drive </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> have also resulted in an increase in </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemics" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pandemics">pandemics</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">.</span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Distribution">Biodiversity Hotspot</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity hotspot">biodiversity hotspot</a> is a region with a high level of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Endemism">endemic</a> species that have experienced great <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat destruction">habitat loss</a>. The term hotspot was introduced in 1988 by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Myers" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Norman Myers">Norman Myers</a>. While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas and most are located in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tropics">tropics</a>.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Forest" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Atlantic Forest">Atlantic Forest</a> is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else. The island<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiY-eYUpbcOebNRkMY3jI-MsAUhL3XfZMHFFjGE6--B8P09hVuw9GutYpja_MRhsMsJdJ4vqVdI9WPm8as13J3IJT1txpvH3QyOUV-8NJIIQy_IKU9R1F-EgtSijBJqYhVd4y31BgW9FxnByxKK3N1er_JNIy0PMDvqTFqAs7xkLIHiZEZKVkGqGyEx7w=s259" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="259" height="97" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiY-eYUpbcOebNRkMY3jI-MsAUhL3XfZMHFFjGE6--B8P09hVuw9GutYpja_MRhsMsJdJ4vqVdI9WPm8as13J3IJT1txpvH3QyOUV-8NJIIQy_IKU9R1F-EgtSijBJqYhVd4y31BgW9FxnByxKK3N1er_JNIy0PMDvqTFqAs7xkLIHiZEZKVkGqGyEx7w=w129-h97" width="129" /></a></div>of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="India">India</a> are also particularly notable. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species, and 18% of the bird species of the world. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar_dry_deciduous_forests" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madagascar dry deciduous forests">Madagascar's dry deciduous forests</a> and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Endemism">endemism</a>. Since the island separated from mainland <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Africa">Africa</a> 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>'s 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup>) and contain 10% of the world's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>, 12% of mammals, and 17% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bird">birds</a>—along with nearly 240 million people. Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat">habitats</a> that require unusual adaptations, for example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_climate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alpine climate">alpine</a> environments in high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mountain">mountains</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europe" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> peat <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bog">bogs</a>.</div><p></p></span><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Ecosystem_services">Ecosystem services</span></h2></div><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="The_balance_of_evidence">The balance of evidence</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">"Ecosystem services are the suite of benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity." The natural species, or biota, are the caretakers of all ecosystems. It is as if the natural world is an enormous bank account of capital assets capable of paying life-sustaining dividends indefinitely, but only if the capital is maintained.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">These services come in three flavors:</p><ol style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Provisioning services which involve the production of renewable resources (e.g.: food, wood, freshwater)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Regulating services which are those that lessen environmental change (e.g.: climate regulation, pest/disease control)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Cultural services represent human value and enjoyment (e.g.: landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation, and spiritual significance)</li></ol><div><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Human_health">Human health</span></h3></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Biodiversity's relevance to human health is becoming an international political issue, as scientific evidence <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgdF9YKHH8RNeTAWBv671WBS0br11lHuhs5UsW6vgOM-u7ZXd2ZNS8GLAiJodG1V_eootSEETcNVXtQVo58ohnLxk1vWboZZabdRU-v2eQfi1Lrgdw4I5udX5bJk7KY1qNIIN_G6ahpEUT_bbflQ56rqA2foTKAnTC2SazCp-vGarJL5qEE69wMYfnSmA=s275" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="114" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgdF9YKHH8RNeTAWBv671WBS0br11lHuhs5UsW6vgOM-u7ZXd2ZNS8GLAiJodG1V_eootSEETcNVXtQVo58ohnLxk1vWboZZabdRU-v2eQfi1Lrgdw4I5udX5bJk7KY1qNIIN_G6ahpEUT_bbflQ56rqA2foTKAnTC2SazCp-vGarJL5qEE69wMYfnSmA=w171-h114" width="171" /></a></div>builds on the global health implications of biodiversity loss.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> This issue is closely linked with the issue of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> as many of the anticipated </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_risks_of_climate_change" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Health risks of climate change">health risks of climate change</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> are associated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of freshwater, impacts on agricultural biodiversity, and food resources, etc.).</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The growing demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and the failure of groups promoting the preservation of water resources. While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to the World Health Organisation (2018), only 71% of the global population used a safely managed drinking-water service.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some of the health issues influenced by biodiversity include dietary health and nutrition security, infectious disease, medical science and medicinal resources, social and psychological health. Biodiversity is also known to have an important role in reducing disaster risk and in post-disaster relief and recovery efforts.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a>, like a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Virus">virus</a>, have more chances to meet resistance in a diverse population. Therefore, in a population genetically similar it expands more easily. For example, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> had fewer chances to occur in a world with higher biodiversity.</p></span><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Species_loss_rates">Species loss rates</span></h2></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, </span></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Almost all<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh1bYPWIjdqh8zKLT54eGhfJxqv37HLfrBDtEe96VWR4vmpU7Qk4qlO67MNsXDLWOKn-2IP3srOr-mTwt-t92eGT7e5Cp2u66IfUv63IbW__abY1TmrOtVLUVFMeOlbdXY3v3Hnm2Q4ThKXjC0xoaRhsXN_IoaEurscuXNx8mi7ZjNs6Kpu3bUhKTFvPg=s615" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="409" data-original-width="615" height="114" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh1bYPWIjdqh8zKLT54eGhfJxqv37HLfrBDtEe96VWR4vmpU7Qk4qlO67MNsXDLWOKn-2IP3srOr-mTwt-t92eGT7e5Cp2u66IfUv63IbW__abY1TmrOtVLUVFMeOlbdXY3v3Hnm2Q4ThKXjC0xoaRhsXN_IoaEurscuXNx8mi7ZjNs6Kpu3bUhKTFvPg=w171-h114" width="171" /></a></div>scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_extinction" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Background extinction">background extinction</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> rates.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years.</span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">In absolute terms, the planet has lost 58% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2016 study by the </span><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180207105442/https://www.wnf.nl/custom/LPR_2016_fullreport/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/external-ltr.svg?59558") right center no-repeat rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #3366bb; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration-line: none;">World Wildlife Fund</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago". Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the marine wildlife gone, and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Latin America">Latin America</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, plummeting 83 percent. High-income countries showed a 10% increase in biodiversity, which was canceled out by a loss in low-income countries. This is despite the fact that high-income countries use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of a process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletion" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Resource depletion">resource depletion</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.</span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">In 2020 the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wildlife_Foundation" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="World Wildlife Foundation">World Wildlife Foundation</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> published a report saying that "biodiversity is being destroyed at a rate unprecedented in human history". The report claims that 68% of the population of the examined species were destroyed in the years 1970 - 2016.</span></div></span><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Threats">Threats</span></h2></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">In 2006, many species were formally classified as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rare species">rare</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Endangered species">endangered</a>,<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threatened_species" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Threatened species">threatened</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which has not been formally recognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> criteria are now listed as threatened with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction">extinction</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">—a total of 16,119.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Habitat_destruction">Habitat destruction</span></h3><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat (ecology)">Habitat</a> destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially in relation to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_forest" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tropical forest">tropical forest</a> destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconsumption" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overconsumption">overconsumption</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_overpopulation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human overpopulation">overpopulation</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land use, land-use change and forestry">land-use change</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollution">pollution</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_contamination" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a>), and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming">global warming</a> or climate change.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg3dj92xAJwzcaUMOg8Ch4v8oOp17zcMS4_4_gjmcgdUMwhC1WqDWC-jhuqZI-qTR8uQ3fdUW3rJrGbnRSYol7sdiL12UbRmx0E6dr_xKi1ejIWwVjxvtkB_V4B7adfXVUL3O-1pwrLQJib0KIpL_RMQUQos81p3H56jMeIYOA5qqCoZ99Z07qakLK-Tg=s580" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="358" data-original-width="580" height="109" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg3dj92xAJwzcaUMOg8Ch4v8oOp17zcMS4_4_gjmcgdUMwhC1WqDWC-jhuqZI-qTR8uQ3fdUW3rJrGbnRSYol7sdiL12UbRmx0E6dr_xKi1ejIWwVjxvtkB_V4B7adfXVUL3O-1pwrLQJib0KIpL_RMQUQos81p3H56jMeIYOA5qqCoZ99Z07qakLK-Tg=w176-h109" width="176" /></a></div>Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculture" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a> following <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity – through clearing/draining the land, discouraging weeds and "pests", and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species. In some countries, property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement are associated with deforestation and habitat loss.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Co-extinctions are a form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline in one species accompanies similar processes in another, such as in plants and beetles.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2019 report has revealed that bees and other pollinating insects have been wiped out of almost a quarter of their habitats across the United Kingdom. The population crashes have been happening since the 1980s and are affecting biodiversity. The increase in industrial farming and pesticide use, combined with diseases, invasive species, and climate change is threatening the future of these insects and the agriculture they support.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2019, research was published showing that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Insect">insects</a> are destroyed by human activities like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_poisoning" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pesticide poisoning">pesticide poisoning</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming">climate change</a> at a rate that will cause the collapse of ecological systems in the next 50 years if it cannot be stopped.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Climate_change">Climate change</span></h3></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Global warming is a major threat to global biodiversity. For example, coral reefs – which are biodiversity hotspots – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change has proven to affect biodiversity and evidence supporting the altering effects is widespread. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and weather, but, mercifully, the major impacts that have been predicted are still potential futures. We have not documented major extinctions yet, even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A recent study predicts that up to 35% of the world's terrestrial carnivores and ungulates will be at higher risk of extinction by 2050 because of the joint effects of predicted climate and land-use change under business-as-usual human development scenarios.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change has advanced the time of evening when Brazilian free-tailed bats (<i>Tadarida brasiliensis</i>)</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhAKQor4YTiQzTxV2w1Fq-aE1wdwNchSQkEolzt9yuAoMMLNQGgrkkWYZw39CdBi5K7czEYqZja0r7zV4i4TZP73NiJrEws4kW7TEfVFejPT3q07YjAS_jv2VV0envrOI_oYbJRNMBecwsgoNtfdIUanlBYqK0ueuB36k-FhCdIj1uDBDdp8eXxpI5hEA=s1000" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="668" data-original-width="1000" height="76" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhAKQor4YTiQzTxV2w1Fq-aE1wdwNchSQkEolzt9yuAoMMLNQGgrkkWYZw39CdBi5K7czEYqZja0r7zV4i4TZP73NiJrEws4kW7TEfVFejPT3q07YjAS_jv2VV0envrOI_oYbJRNMBecwsgoNtfdIUanlBYqK0ueuB36k-FhCdIj1uDBDdp8eXxpI5hEA=w114-h76" width="114" /></a></div>emerge to feed. This change is believed to be related to the drying of regions as temperatures rise. This earlier emergence exposes the bats to greater predation increased competition with other insectivores who feed in the twilight or daylight hours.<p></p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Human_overpopulation">Human overpopulation</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The world's population numbered nearly 7.6 billion as of mid-2017 (which is approximately one billion more inhabitants compared to 2005) and is forecast to reach 11.1 billion in 2100. Sir <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_King_(scientist)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="David King (scientist)">David King</a>, the former chief scientific adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgaDs98B8dZn_rx8Z3lM0bVbdtvRnTWCmVONbN21Q4tisPV6foh4If6QL8BSG7AgJV9LY8KqSOqP52BAix4sISxp5hhpPz3xzdT-nXNhNRIsCbnGSvJCn2K6aUcRO7cIKstCkdO1iXqhvF88OKFrr5QjkEwnNAv8gnMIu01vOneJ0IjJSQLG8SljwaZ2Q=s2048" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1365" data-original-width="2048" height="101" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgaDs98B8dZn_rx8Z3lM0bVbdtvRnTWCmVONbN21Q4tisPV6foh4If6QL8BSG7AgJV9LY8KqSOqP52BAix4sISxp5hhpPz3xzdT-nXNhNRIsCbnGSvJCn2K6aUcRO7cIKstCkdO1iXqhvF88OKFrr5QjkEwnNAv8gnMIu01vOneJ0IjJSQLG8SljwaZ2Q=w152-h101" width="152" /></a></div>growth in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_population" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human population">human population</a> through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor." At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine biodiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_rate" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Birth rate">human birth rate</a>.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some top scientists have argued that population size and growth, along with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconsumption" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overconsumption">overconsumption</a>, are significant factors in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and soil degradation. The 2019 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPBES" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPBES">IPBES</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Assessment_Report_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a></i> and biologists including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_R._Ehrlich" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paul R. Ehrlich">Paul R. Ehrlich</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Pimm" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stuart Pimm">Stuart Pimm</a> have noted that <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_population_growth" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human population growth">human population growth</a> and overconsumption are the main drivers of species decline. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._O._Wilson" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>, who contends that human population growth has been devastating to the planet's biodiversity, stated that the "pattern of human population growth in the 20th century was more bacterial than primate." He added that when <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> reached a population of six billion their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> exceeded that of any other large land-dwelling animal species that had ever existed by over 100 times, and that "we and the rest of life cannot afford another 100 years like that".</p></span></div></span></div></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-63915335595546267512021-11-03T23:11:00.000+08:002021-11-03T23:11:12.359+08:00Activated carbon - Superb Adsorption<p><b style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Activated carbon</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, also called</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><b style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">activated charcoal</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, is a form of</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon">carbon</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">processed to have small, low-</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zVkbaFFpMFc/YYKi8r-ceII/AAAAAAAACjg/bUkhtHa5hEo7AEOSifBq-Gs6aGfmHDpwQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/to%2Bremove%2Btoxin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="248" data-original-width="474" height="87" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zVkbaFFpMFc/YYKi8r-ceII/AAAAAAAACjg/bUkhtHa5hEo7AEOSifBq-Gs6aGfmHDpwQCLcBGAsYHQ/w168-h87/to%2Bremove%2Btoxin.jpg" width="168" /></a></div>volume pores that increase the<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Surface area">surface area</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">available for</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">or</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><i style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Activated</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">is sometimes replaced by</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><i style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">active</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Due to its high degree of microporosity, one gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 3,000 m</span><sup style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (32,000 sq ft) as determined by gas </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. An activation level sufficient for useful application may be obtained solely from a high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.</span><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Activated charcoal, also known as activated carbon is commonly produced from high carbon sources materials such as wood or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coconut">coconut husk</a>. It is made by treating the source material with either a combination of heat and pressure or with a strong <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Acid">acid</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> followed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbonization">carbonization</a> to make it highly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Porosity">porous</a>. This gives it a very large <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Surface-area-to-volume ratio">surface area for its volume</a>, up to 3000 square meters per <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gram">gram</a>. It has a large number of industrial uses including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> storage, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air purifier">air purification</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decaffeination" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Decaffeination">decaffeination</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_in_pulp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon in pulp">gold purification</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extractive metallurgy">metal extraction</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water purification">water purification</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sewage treatment">sewage treatment</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air filter">air filters</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_mask" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gas mask">gas masks</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Respirator">respirators</a>.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Activated carbon is usually derived from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>. When derived from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coal">coal</a> it is referred to as <b>activated coal</b>. <b>Activated coke</b> is derived from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>.</p><div><span class="mw-headline"><div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Properties">Properties</span></h2></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m</span><sup style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m</span><sup style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Under an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Porosity">porosity</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">; there may be<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-KD5aaYp1ga0/YYKjNMjT8TI/AAAAAAAACjs/ZNcK5Ks8E8EHCGwVWnReEP8wi819jNWEQCLcBGAsYHQ/s300/activated%2Bcarbon%2Bmicro.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="273" data-original-width="300" height="101" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-KD5aaYp1ga0/YYKjNMjT8TI/AAAAAAAACjs/ZNcK5Ks8E8EHCGwVWnReEP8wi819jNWEQCLcBGAsYHQ/w111-h101/activated%2Bcarbon%2Bmicro.jpg" width="111" /></a></div>many areas where flat surfaces of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Graphite">graphite</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">-like material run parallel to each other,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> separated by only a few nanometers or so. These </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micropore" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Micropore">micropores</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> provide superb conditions for </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behavior are usually done with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> gas at 77 </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kelvin">K</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> under high </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steam">steam</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> at 100 °C (212 °F) and pressure of 1/10,000 of an </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmosphere</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (H</span><sub style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">S), ammonia (NH</span><sub style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">3</sub><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">), formaldehyde (HCOH), </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (Hg) and radioactive </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine-131" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">(</span><sup style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">131</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">I). This property is known as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisorption" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chemisorption">chemisorption</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span></div></span><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Production">Production</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XtwCIg9vQW0/YYKlJZcvdBI/AAAAAAAACkU/KsLwTu8Q6HQKYR6wMLyuWOU3swn7Ua1uACLcBGAsYHQ/s310/activated%2Bcarbon%2Bproduction.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="232" data-original-width="310" height="75" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XtwCIg9vQW0/YYKlJZcvdBI/AAAAAAAACkU/KsLwTu8Q6HQKYR6wMLyuWOU3swn7Ua1uACLcBGAsYHQ/w100-h75/activated%2Bcarbon%2Bproduction.jpg" width="100" /></a></div>Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Peat">peat</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coir">coir</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignite" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lignite">lignite</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coal">coal</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pitch (resin)">petroleum pitch</a>. It can be produced by one of the following processes:<ol style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Physical activation</b>: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gasses, creating a graded, screened, and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbonization">Carbonization</a></i>: Material with carbon content is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolyzed</a> at temperatures in the range of 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Argon">argon</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Activation/Oxidation</i>: Raw material or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbonization">carbonized</a> material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C.</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Chemical activation</b>: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Acid">acid</a>, strong <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alkali">base</a>, or a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salt (chemistry)">salt</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a> 25%, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxide</a> 5%, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> 5%, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a> 25%, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_chloride" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zinc chloride">zinc chloride</a> 25% ). The carbon is then subjected to higher temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.</li></ol></span></div></div><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Mitigate Climate change and Save a life</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Environmental">Environmental</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Carbon <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a> has numerous applications in removing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a> from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:</p><ul style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Spill cleanup</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_remediation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental remediation">remediation</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Drinking water">Drinking water</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtration" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Filtration">filtration</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air purifier">Air purification</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compounds</a> capture from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Painting">painting</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cleaning" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dry cleaning">dry cleaning</a>, gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compounds</a> recovery (solvent recovery systems, SRU) from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_packaging" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Flexible packaging">flexible packaging</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converting" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Converting">converting</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coating">coating</a>, and other processes.</li></ul><div><span style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">We have seen activated carbon can be the very best environmental solution for purification and cleaning up <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OTN8b8eHNXU/YYKjtu0ax9I/AAAAAAAACj8/swSd91_ghiow6I_EuF5YBBk5Smj9wp4iQCLcBGAsYHQ/s2678/Empower%2Bour%2Bfuture.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1174" data-original-width="2678" height="58" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OTN8b8eHNXU/YYKjtu0ax9I/AAAAAAAACj8/swSd91_ghiow6I_EuF5YBBk5Smj9wp4iQCLcBGAsYHQ/w131-h58/Empower%2Bour%2Bfuture.jpg" width="131" /></a></div>air from toxic and unwanted residue. It works to adsorption the air was very efficient. Some companies made a shift by new innovation with saving environment mindset to design a new and modern product, to mitigate climate change, without using any electric power and only as standalone modern with new design product, can change the air from bad to better. It has been tested and effective to eliminate the covid19 variant in the air.</span></span></div><div><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Agricultural">Agricultural</span></h3></div></span></div></span></div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Animal husbandry">livestock production</a>. In livestock production, it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient, and disinfectant. </p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">Medical use</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Activated charcoal is used to detoxify people, but only in life-threatening </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_emergency" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Medical emergency">medical emergencies</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> such<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-T1PjwxEVTGU/YYKkF6LCQQI/AAAAAAAACkI/pMAkf5bj1TYgdk4A1ExjQPeyt9B4tPIzgCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/charcoal%2Bdetox.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="332" data-original-width="474" height="98" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-T1PjwxEVTGU/YYKkF6LCQQI/AAAAAAAACkI/pMAkf5bj1TYgdk4A1ExjQPeyt9B4tPIzgCLcBGAsYHQ/w140-h98/charcoal%2Bdetox.jpg" width="140" /></a></div>as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_overdose" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Drug overdose">overdoses</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisoning" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Poisoning">poisonings</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> As it is indigestible it will only work on poisons or medications still present in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stomach">stomach</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestines" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intestines">intestines</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Once these have been </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(biology)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Absorption (biology)">absorbed</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> by the body the charcoal will no longer be able to </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorb" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adsorb">adsorb</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> them so early intervention is desirable.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Charcoal is not an effective treatment for </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metal">metals</a>,<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chemical element">elemental</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> poisons such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lithium">lithium</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> as it will only </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorb" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adsorb">absorb</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> certain </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substance" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chemical substance">chemicals</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Molecule">molecules</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> It is usually administered by a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasogastric_intubation" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nasogastric intubation">nasogastric tube</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> into the stomach as the thick </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Slurry">slurry</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> required for maximum adsorption is very difficult to swallow.</span></span></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-52689736521684627442021-10-01T21:31:00.309+08:002022-03-10T12:21:49.281+08:00Biological warfare – On Setup<p><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NDDkqxKklyw/YVcKnervcrI/AAAAAAAACiY/Dj4t63qxFpUZP5m9d1lbTHN5-sSeyx9OACLcBGAsYHQ/s474/covid%2Bjab%2Bbig%2Bmistake.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="247" data-original-width="474" height="103" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NDDkqxKklyw/YVcKnervcrI/AAAAAAAACiY/Dj4t63qxFpUZP5m9d1lbTHN5-sSeyx9OACLcBGAsYHQ/w186-h103/covid%2Bjab%2Bbig%2Bmistake.jpg" width="186" /></a></b></div><b>Biological
warfare</b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, also known as <b>germ
warfare</b>, is the use of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin#Biotoxins" title="Toxin"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">biological toxins</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">infectious agents</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> such as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">bacteria</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">viruses</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insects" title="Insects"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">insects</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">fungi</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> with the intent to kill, harm, or incapacitate humans, animals, or
plants as an act of war. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Biological weapons</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (often termed "bio-weapons",
"biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are
living </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" title="Organism"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">organisms</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or replicating entities ( <i>i.e.</i> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">viruses</span></a><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which
are not universally considered "alive"). It is probably germ warfare right now.</span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Biological warfare is
distinct from warfare involving other types of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">weapons
of mass destruction</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> (WMD),
including </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">nuclear
warfare</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">chemical warfare</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">radiological
warfare</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. None of these are
considered </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_weapons" title="Conventional weapons"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">conventional
weapons</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, which are deployed
primarily for their </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">explosive</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">kinetic</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">incendiary</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> potential.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic
or </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactic_(method)" title="Tactic (method)"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">tactical</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual
deployments. Biological weapons may also be useful as </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">area denial
weapons</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. These agents may be lethal or </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon" title="Non-lethal weapon"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">non-lethal</span></a></span><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> and may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or
even an entire population.</span><div><div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Overview</span></span></b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">A biological attack could conceivably result in
large numbers of </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_casualties" title="Civilian casualties"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">civilian
casualties</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and cause severe disruption to </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic" title="Economic"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">economic</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and societal infrastructure. Accordingly, biological agents are
potentially useful as strategic deterrents, in addition to their utility as
offensive weapons on the battlefield.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HaUOLA6VG3E/YVcK2-9hwzI/AAAAAAAACig/oyNLth2m4doZ0mW7MqDYm78l-JZM_kGXQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/Bio-Warfare.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="355" data-original-width="474" height="110" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HaUOLA6VG3E/YVcK2-9hwzI/AAAAAAAACig/oyNLth2m4doZ0mW7MqDYm78l-JZM_kGXQCLcBGAsYHQ/w147-h110/Bio-Warfare.jpg" width="147" /></a></div><br /> As a tactical weapon for military use, a
significant problem with biological warfare is that it would take days or years
to be effective, and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force.
Some biological agents (</span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">smallpox</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pneumonic plague</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">) have the capability of person-to-person </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" title="Transmission (medicine)"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">transmission</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> via </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">aerosolized</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droplet_contact" title="Droplet contact"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">respiratory droplets</span></a></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. This feature can be undesirable, as the agent(s) may be transmitted by
this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly
forces. During a pandemic, the government faces an incentive to not disclose negative information about vaccines to not jeopardize public vaccine acceptance, while disclosing negative information may increase hesitancy, transparency sustains trust in health authorities and hinders the spread of conspiracy beliefs, and from this situation, a vaccine can be the best candidate for a new delivery </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">agent(s)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Worse still, such a weapon could "escape" the laboratory
where it was developed, even if there was no intent to use it.</span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><div style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A2A9B1 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background: white; border: none; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A2A9B1 .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif";">Genetic warfare Bio-agents</span></b></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div></span></span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Theoretically, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as
synthetic biology could be used in the future to design novel types of
biological warfare agents. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would demonstrate how
to render a vaccine ineffective;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would confer
resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would enhance the
virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would increase the
transmissibility of a pathogen;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would alter the host
range of a pathogen;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would enable the
evasion of diagnostic/detection tools; </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Would enable the
weaponization of a biological agent or toxin.</span></p></span></span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><div style="border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(162, 169, 177); border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: none; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="border: none; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; padding: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Hypothesis Bio-agents in Experimental Covid19
vaccine</span></span></h2>
</div></span></span></span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Platforms being developed in 2020 involved nucleic acid technologies (nucleoside-modified messenger RNA and DNA), non-replicating viral vectors, peptides, recombinant proteins, live attenuated viruses, and inactivated viruses. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pRm1SLNHdUQ/YVcLEzRRsaI/AAAAAAAACik/FSWA_NpKO8s4Mr_FA8oEU2bPBa6SHEIkwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/mRNA%2Bnano%2Bparticles.jpg" style="clear: left; display: inline; float: left; font-size: 10.5pt; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="78" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pRm1SLNHdUQ/YVcLEzRRsaI/AAAAAAAACik/FSWA_NpKO8s4Mr_FA8oEU2bPBa6SHEIkwCLcBGAsYHQ/w139-h78/mRNA%2Bnano%2Bparticles.jpg" width="139" /></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">An <b>inactivated
vaccine</b> (or <b>killed vaccine</b>) is a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">vaccine</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> consisting of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">virus</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> particles, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">bacteria</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, or other</span><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" style="font-size: 10.5pt;" title="Pathogen"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pathogens</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> that have been grown in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiological_culture" style="font-size: 10.5pt;" title="Microbiological culture"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">culture</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> and then killed to destroy disease-producing capacity. In contrast, live vaccines use pathogens that are still
alive (but are almost always </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine" style="font-size: 10.5pt;" title="Attenuated vaccine"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">attenuated</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, that is, weakened). Pathogens for inactivated
vaccines are grown under controlled conditions and are killed as a means to
reduce infectivity and thus prevent </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">infection</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> from the vaccine. The virus is killed using a
method such as heat or </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">formaldehyde</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Inactivated vaccines are further classified depending on
the method used to inactivate the virus. <i>Whole virus vaccines</i> use
the entire virus particle, fully destroyed using heat, chemicals, or radiation. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">The pathogens formulated in the experimental COVID vaccine are origin from (Bat) the first animal of concerned pathogens</span></span></span><span style="color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">. Pathogen particles are destroyed and cannot divide, but the pathogens maintain
some of their integrity to be recognized by the immune system and evoke an
adaptive immune response. When manufactured correctly, the vaccine is not
infectious, but improper inactivation can result in intact and infectious
particles and can be the tools of bio-weapon agents </span></p></span></span></span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><div style="border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(162, 169, 177); border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: none; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="border: none; margin: 0in 0in 3pt; padding: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;">Hypothesis comorbid from Bio-agents</span></span></h2>
</div></span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Short/Long-term Neuropathic
pain</span></b><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> is </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain" title="Pain"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pain</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> caused
by damage or disease affecting the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">somatosensory
nervous system</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">. Neuropathic
pain may be associated with abnormal sensations called </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysesthesia" title="Dysesthesia"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">dysesthesia</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> or pain from normally non-painful stimuli (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allodynia" title="Allodynia"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">allodynia</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">). It may have continuous and/or episodic (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paroxysmal" title="Paroxysmal"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">paroxysmal</span></a><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">) components. The latter resemble stabbings or electric
shocks. Common qualities include burning or coldness, "pins and
needles" sensations, numbness, and itching.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;">Comorbidities</span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">Neuropathic pain caused by
virus/toxin has profound physiological effects on the brain which can manifest as</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dnnXLiVcZiU/YVcLc-dUyII/AAAAAAAACiw/cspdOkGHAPw1znA0BxL3acjvtOIJqNRLACLcBGAsYHQ/s632/nerve%2Bpain.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="632" data-original-width="474" height="119" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dnnXLiVcZiU/YVcLc-dUyII/AAAAAAAACiw/cspdOkGHAPw1znA0BxL3acjvtOIJqNRLACLcBGAsYHQ/w101-h119/nerve%2Bpain.jpg" width="101" /></a></div>psychological disorders. Neuropathic pain has important effects on social
well-being that should not be ignored. Neuropathic pain sufferers may have
difficulty working exhibit higher levels of presenteeism, absenteeism, and
unemployment, exhibit higher levels of substance misuse (which may be
related to attempted self-medication), and present difficulties with
social interactions. Moreover, uncontrolled neuropathic pain is a
significant risk factor for suicide, depression, and hypertension. Certain classes of
neuropathic pain may cause serious adverse effects necessitating hospital
admission, for instance, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_neuralgia" title="Trigeminal neuralgia"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; line-height: 107%;">trigeminal
neuralgia</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"> can present as a
severe crisis where the patient may have difficulty talking, eating, and
drinking.</span><p></p><div style="background: white; border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(162, 169, 177); border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: none; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background: white; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Common epidemiological clues that may
signal a biological attack</span></span></b></span><span class="mw-headline" style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></b></span><span class="mw-headline" style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></h2>
</div></span></span></span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin: 6pt 0in;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">From most specific to least specific: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Single cause of a
certain disease caused by an uncommon agent, with lack of an epidemiological
explanation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Unusual, rare, genetically
engineered strain of an agent.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">High morbidity and
mortality rates in regards to patients with the same or similar symptoms.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Unusual presentation
of the disease.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Unusual geographic or
seasonal distribution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Stable endemic
disease, but with an unexplained increase in relevance.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Rare transmission
(aerosols, food, water).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">No illness presented
in people who were/are not exposed to "common ventilation systems (have
separate closed ventilation systems) when illness is seen in persons in close
proximity who have a common ventilation system."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Different and
unexplained diseases coexisting in the same patient without any other
explanation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Rare illness that
affects a large, disparate population (respiratory disease might suggest the
pathogen or agent was inhaled).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Illness is unusual for
a certain population or age group in which it takes presence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Unusual trends of
death and/or illness in animal populations, previous to or accompanying illness
in humans.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Many affected reaching
out for treatment at the same time.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Similar genetic makeup
of agents in affected individuals.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">Simultaneous
collections of similar illnesses in non-contiguous areas, domestic, or foreign. </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 10.5pt;">An abundance of cases of
unexplained diseases and deaths.</span></p></span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><div style="background: white; border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(162, 169, 177); border-image: initial; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: none; padding: 0in;">
<h2 style="background: white; border: none; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Incubation theory for
multiple mutated variants from vaccine</span></span></b></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 10.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</div></span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background: white; color: #202122; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"><b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;">Escape
mutation</span></b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;"> from vaccine occurs when the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">immune system</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;"> of
a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">host</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;">, especially
of a human being, is unable to </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bitnnEJHmf8/YVcLu2Yt-fI/AAAAAAAACi8/NpWycPH4gZA6Wb0aFaRPJxdBoB1BRMBlACLcBGAsYHQ/s275/vitus%2Bmutates%2Bfast.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="86" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bitnnEJHmf8/YVcLu2Yt-fI/AAAAAAAACi8/NpWycPH4gZA6Wb0aFaRPJxdBoB1BRMBlACLcBGAsYHQ/w130-h86/vitus%2Bmutates%2Bfast.jpg" width="130" /></a></div>respond to an </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">infectious agent</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;">, or, in other
words, the host's immune system is no longer able to recognize and eliminate
a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">pathogen</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;"> such as a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">virus</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;">. This process can occur in a number of different ways of
both a genetic and environmental nature. Such mechanisms include </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">homologous recombination</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;"> and manipulation and resistance of the host's immune
responses. Different </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">antigens</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;"> are able
to escape through a variety of mechanisms. Antigenic escape is not only crucial
for the host's natural immune response, but also for the resistance
against </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt;">vaccinations</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt;">. The problem
of antigenic escape has greatly deterred the process of creating new vaccines.
Because vaccines generally cover a small ratio of strains of one virus, the
recombination of antigenic DNA that leads to diverse pathogens allows these
invaders to resist even newly developed vaccinations. Some antigens may
even target pathways different from those the vaccine had originally intended
to target.</span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: small;">Consequences
of recent vaccines</span></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">While
vaccines are created to strengthen the immune response to </span><span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen"><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="color: #0645ad; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">pathogens</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">, in many cases these
vaccines are not able to cover the wide variety of strains a pathogen may have.
Instead, they may only protect against one or two strains, leading to the escape
of strains not covered by the vaccine. This results in the pathogens being
able to attack targets of the immune system different than those intended to be
targeted by the vaccination.</span></p></span></span></span></span><h2 style="background: white; border: none; color: #202122; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Various ways to successful Setup in Bio-warfare</span></span></b></span></h2></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">As we all know, there is no proven flu vaccine and
there is no vaccine with long-lasting protection from the virus. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection
include getting vaccinated </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; text-indent: -24px;">(vaccine without virus</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; text-indent: -24px;">)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt;">, staying at home, wearing a mask in public, avoiding
crowded places, keeping distance from others, ventilating indoor</span></div><div><span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #202122; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QefuCAk_a3Q/YVcL33NePBI/AAAAAAAACjA/VEMFeEkrbygDs0XysIbWejiQlQMR5XVRQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/Saline%2BWater.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="71" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QefuCAk_a3Q/YVcL33NePBI/AAAAAAAACjA/VEMFeEkrbygDs0XysIbWejiQlQMR5XVRQCLcBGAsYHQ/w126-h71/Saline%2BWater.jpg" width="126" /></a></div>spaces,
managing potential exposure durations, washing hands with soap and water
often and for at least twenty seconds, practicing good respiratory hygiene, and
avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands, also reduce the population of pigs in this world. Following this
method efficiently is enough to vanish the COVID virus altogether. Using Saline Water as a
vaccine will also give an advantage for future setup victory, by predicting novel findings of new technology vaccines malfeasance.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div><h2 style="background: white; border: none; color: #202122; margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; padding: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Option to counter Bio-agents</span></span></b></span></h2><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">After people recover from infection with a COVID virus, the immune system retains a memory of it, while that’s good for the immune system, it also means that even after you recover from COVID, it’s still inside your body and can resurface. Studies have been unclear how long immunity lasts and how many viruses are, after having from the first shot of the COVID vaccine.</span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Cure Hypotheses 1- If people are not affected again for some period of time, the virus and synthetic formulation in the vaccine can be toxins and can cause unknown illnesses for your mental and body health. To counter this, proponents claim cupping has a therapeutic effect and removes unspecified "toxins", stagnant blood, or "vital energy" when used over acupuncture points with the goal of improving blood circulation. Modern suction devices are sometimes used instead of traditional cups.</span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Cure Hypotheses 2- An antitoxin is an antibody with the ability to neutralize a specific toxin, although they are most effective in neutralizing toxins, they can also kill bacteria and other microorganisms. Antitoxins are made within organisms and can be injected into other organisms, including humans, to treat an infectious disease. Most antitoxin preparations are prepared from donors with high titers of antibody against the toxin, making them hyperimmune globulins, the blood donors must be from healthy unvaccinated people.</span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">So you have a few choices here, 1. to deny and be a noble unvaccinated person. 2. to accept the experimental vaccine and keep the virus to retain a memory of it for protection or 3. to remove the virus before it starts generating toxins in the future. Action is on your hand, make your wise choice, what does your gut tell you?.</span></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-58719308757570660442021-09-09T19:11:00.002+08:002021-09-09T19:12:06.971+08:00Plant Virus<p><b style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Plant viruses</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">are</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Virus">viruses</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">that affect</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plant">plants</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. Like all other viruses, plant viruses are obligate</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracellular_parasite" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intracellular parasite">intracellular parasites</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">that do not have the molecular machinery to</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replication" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Self-replication">replicate</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">without a</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(biology)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Host (biology)">host</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. Plant viruses can be</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">to</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_plant" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Higher plant">higher plants</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span></p><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OirTFFmxOo8/YTnrr4SieWI/AAAAAAAACiI/7V3Qae4OVQQ_MqMTUKFe9BVJRRnxjgzIQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/plant%2Bviruses.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="474" height="115" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OirTFFmxOo8/YTnrr4SieWI/AAAAAAAACiI/7V3Qae4OVQQ_MqMTUKFe9BVJRRnxjgzIQCLcBGAsYHQ/w172-h115/plant%2Bviruses.jpg" width="172" /></a></div>Most plant viruses are <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod-shaped" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rod-shaped">rod-shaped</a>, with protein discs forming a tube surrounding the viral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genome">genome</a>; <a class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_(disambiguation)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Isometric (disambiguation)">isometric</a> particles are another common structure. They rarely have an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_envelope" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Viral envelope">envelope</a>. The great majority have an RNA genome, which is usually small and single-stranded (ss), but some viruses have double-stranded (ds) RNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA genomes. Although plant viruses are not as well understood as their animal counterparts, one plant virus has become very recognizable: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">tobacco mosaic virus</a></i> (TMV), the first virus to be discovered. This and other viruses cause an estimated US $60 billion loss in crop yields worldwide each year. Plant viruses are grouped into 73 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(biology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genus (biology)">genera</a> and 49 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Family (biology)">families</a>. However, these figures relate only to cultivated plants, which represent only a tiny fraction of the total number of plant species. Viruses in wild plants have not been well-studied, but the interactions between wild plants and their viruses often do not appear to cause disease in the host plants.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">To transmit from one plant to another and from one plant cell to another, plant viruses must use strategies that are usually different from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Animal virus">animal viruses</a>. Most plants do not move, and so plant-to-plant transmission usually involves vectors (such as insects). Plant cells are surrounded by solid <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a>, therefore transport through <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmodesmata" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plasmodesmata">plasmodesmata</a> is the preferred path for virions to move between plant cells. Plants have specialized mechanisms for transporting <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MRNA">mRNAs</a> through plasmodesmata, and these mechanisms are thought to be used by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="RNA virus">RNA viruses</a> to spread from one cell to another. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innate_immune_system#Plants" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Innate immune system">Plant defenses against viral infection</a> include, among other measures, the use of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SiRNA" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="SiRNA">siRNA</a> in response to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DsRNA" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="DsRNA">dsRNA</a>. Most plant viruses encode a protein to suppress this response. Plants also reduce transport through <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmodesmata" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plasmodesmata">plasmodesmata</a> in response to injury.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Structure">Structure</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Viruses are extremely small and can only be observed under an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>. The structure of a virus is given by its coat of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, which surround the viral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genome">genome</a>. Assembly of viral particles takes place <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-organization#Self-organization_in_biology" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Self-organization">spontaneously</a>.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Over 50% of known plant viruses are <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod-shaped" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rod-shaped">rod-shaped</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexuous" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Flexuous">flexuous</a> or rigid). </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-uFz3k-SKBFU/YTnp0FMMtvI/AAAAAAAAChs/FuZWdNaf7ZcRxysSHDn9sA4igMthILEkQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/plant%2Bvirus%2Bstructure.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="331" data-original-width="474" height="136" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-uFz3k-SKBFU/YTnp0FMMtvI/AAAAAAAAChs/FuZWdNaf7ZcRxysSHDn9sA4igMthILEkQCLcBGAsYHQ/w196-h136/plant%2Bvirus%2Bstructure.jpg" width="196" /></a></div><br />The length of the particle is normally dependent on the genome but it is usually between 300–500 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometers" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nanometers">nm</a> with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Diameter">diameter</a> of 15–20 nm. Protein subunits can be placed around the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumference" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Circumference">circumference</a> of a circle to form a disc. In the presence of the viral genome, the discs are stacked, then a tube is created with room for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acid</a> genome in the middle.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The second most common structure amongst plant viruses is <a class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_(disambiguation)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Isometric (disambiguation)">isometric</a> particles. They are 25–50 nm in diameter. In cases when there is only a single coat protein, the basic structure consists of 60 T subunits, where T is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Integer">integer</a>. Some viruses may have 2 coat proteins that associate to form an icosahedral-shaped particle.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">There are three genera of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geminiviridae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Geminiviridae">Geminiviridae</a></i> that consist of particles that are like two isometric particles stuck together.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A very small number of plant viruses have, in addition to their coat proteins, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cell membrane">lipid envelope</a>. This is derived from the plant cell membrane as the virus particle <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_shedding" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Viral shedding">buds</a> off from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Transmission_of_plant_viruses">Transmission of plant viruses</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Through_sap">Through sap</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Viruses can be spread by direct transfer of sap by contact of a wounded plant with a healthy one. Such contact may occur during agricultural practices, as by damage caused by tools or hands, or naturally, as by an animal feeding on the plant. Generally, TMV, potato viruses, and cucumber mosaic viruses are transmitted via sap.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Insects">Insects</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Plant viruses need to be transmitted by a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a>, most often <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insects" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Insects">insects</a> such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafhoppers" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Leafhoppers">leafhoppers</a>. One class of viruses, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a>, has been proposed to actually be insect viruses that have evolved to replicate in plants. The chosen insect vector of a plant virus will often be the determining factor in that virus's host range: it can only infect plants that the insect vector feeds upon. This was shown in part when the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_world" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Old world">old world</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_fly" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="White fly">white fly</a> made it to the United States, where it transferred many plant viruses into new hosts. Depending on the way they are transmitted, plant viruses are classified as non-persistent, semi-persistent, and persistent. In non-persistent transmission, viruses become attached to the distal tip of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_mouthparts" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Insect mouthparts">stylet</a> of the insect and on the next plant it feeds on, it inoculates it with the virus. Semi-persistent viral transmission involves the virus entering the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foregut" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Foregut">foregut</a> of the insect. Those viruses that manage to pass through the gut into the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemolymph" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Haemolymph">haemolymph</a> and then to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glands" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salivary glands">salivary glands</a> are known as persistent. There are two sub-classes of persistent viruses: propagative and circulative. Propagative viruses are able to replicate in both the plant and the insect (and may have originally been insect viruses), whereas circulative can not. Circulative viruses are protected inside aphids by the chaperone protein <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symbionin&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Symbionin (page does not exist)">symbionin</a>, produced by bacterial <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbionts" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Symbionts">symbionts</a>. Many plant viruses encode within their genome <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypeptide" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Polypeptide">polypeptides</a> with domains essential for transmission by </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kEpO2sIFCts/YTnqCDhksmI/AAAAAAAAChw/A4UVP7yzzBkwl0QYG2-EynFsSIp5FfATwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/insect%2Bviruses.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="474" height="132" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kEpO2sIFCts/YTnqCDhksmI/AAAAAAAAChw/A4UVP7yzzBkwl0QYG2-EynFsSIp5FfATwCLcBGAsYHQ/w186-h132/insect%2Bviruses.jpg" width="186" /></a></div>insects. In non-persistent and semi-persistent viruses, these domains are in the coat protein and another protein is known as the helper component. A bridging <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> has been proposed to explain how these proteins aid in insect-mediated viral transmission. The helper component will bind to the specific domain of the coat protein, and then the insect mouthparts – creating a bridge. In persistent propagative viruses, such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato_spotted_wilt_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tomato spotted wilt virus">tomato spotted wilt virus</a> (TSWV), there is often a lipid coat surrounding the proteins that are not seen in other classes of plant viruses. In the case of TSWV, 2 viral proteins are expressed in this lipid envelope. It has been proposed that the viruses bind via these proteins and are then taken into the insect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> by receptor-mediated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Endocytosis">endocytosis</a>.<p></p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Nematodes">Nematodes</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Soil-borne <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematode" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> also have been shown to transmit viruses. They acquire and transmit them by feeding on infected <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Root">roots</a>. Viruses can be transmitted both non-persistently and persistently, but there is no evidence of viruses being able to replicate in nematodes. The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virions" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Virions">virions</a> attach to the stylet (feeding organ) or to the gut when they feed on an infected plant and can then detach during later feeding to infect other plants. Examples of viruses that can be transmitted by nematodes include the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_ringspot_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco ringspot virus">tobacco ringspot virus</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_rattle_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco rattle virus">tobacco rattle virus</a>.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Plasmodiophorids">Plasmodiophorids</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A number of virus genera are transmitted, both persistently and non-persistently, by soil-borne <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoospore" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zoospore">zoosporic</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoa" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>. These protozoa are not phytopathogenic themselves, but <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a>. Transmission of the virus takes place when they become associated with the plant roots. Examples include <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymyxa_graminis" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Polymyxa graminis">Polymyxa graminis</a></i>, which has been shown to transmit plant viral diseases in cereal crops, and <i><a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polymyxa_betae&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Polymyxa betae (page does not exist)">Polymyxa betae</a></i> which transmits <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beet_necrotic_yellow_vein_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Beet necrotic yellow vein virus">Beet necrotic yellow vein virus</a>. Plasmodiophorids also create wounds in the plant's root through which other viruses can enter.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Seed_and_pollen_borne_viruses">Seed and pollen borne viruses</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Plant virus transmission from generation to generation occurs in about 20% of plant viruses. When viruses are transmitted by seeds, the seed is infected in the generative cells and the virus is maintained in the germ cells and sometimes, but less often, in the seed coat. When the growth and development of plants are delayed because of situations like unfavorable weather, there is an increase in the number of virus infections in seeds. There does not seem to be a correlation between the location of the seed on the plant and its chances of being infected. Little is known about the mechanisms involved in the transmission of</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ooJxeh5qvm4/YTnqQdSbhKI/AAAAAAAACh4/zv-YbZ9wF_QYQelBiCIJL2zPVAWywi9lACLcBGAsYHQ/s288/Seed%2Bborne%2Bdiseases.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="168" data-original-width="288" height="128" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ooJxeh5qvm4/YTnqQdSbhKI/AAAAAAAACh4/zv-YbZ9wF_QYQelBiCIJL2zPVAWywi9lACLcBGAsYHQ/w220-h128/Seed%2Bborne%2Bdiseases.jpg" width="220" /></a></div> plant viruses via seeds, although it is known that it is environmentally influenced and that seed transmission occurs because of a direct invasion of the embryo via the ovule or by an indirect route with an attack on the embryo mediated by infected gametes. These processes can occur concurrently or separately depending on the host plant. It is unknown how the virus is able to directly invade and cross the embryo and the boundary between the parental and progeny generations in the ovule. Many plants species can be infected through seeds including but not limited to the families <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leguminosae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Leguminosae">Leguminosae</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanaceae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solanaceae">Solanaceae</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Compositae">Compositae</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosaceae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rosaceae">Rosaceae</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucurbitaceae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cucurbitaceae">Cucurbitaceae</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramineae" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gramineae">Gramineae</a>. Bean common mosaic virus is transmitted through seeds.<p></p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Direct_plant-to-human_transmission">Direct plant-to-human transmission</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Researchers from the University of the Mediterranean in Marseille, France have found tenuous evidence that suggests a virus common to peppers, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pepper mild mottle virus">Pepper Mild Mottle Virus</a> (PMMoV) may have moved on to infect humans. This is a very rare and highly unlikely event as, to enter a cell and replicate, a virus must "bind to a receptor on its surface, and a plant virus would be highly unlikely to recognize a receptor on a human cell. One possibility is that the virus does not infect human cells directly. Instead, the naked viral RNA may alter the function of the cells through a mechanism similar to RNA interference, in which the presence of certain RNA sequences can turn genes on and off," according to Virologist Robert Garry from the Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications_of_plant_viruses">Applications of plant viruses</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Plant viruses can be used to engineer </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Viral vector">viral vectors</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, tools commonly used by molecular </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biologist">biologists</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> to deliver </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_material" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> into plant </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">; they are also sources of biomaterials and nanotechnology devices.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Knowledge of plant viruses and their components has been instrumental in the development of modern plant biotechnology. The use of plant viruses to enhance the beauty of ornamental plants can be considered the first recorded application of plant viruses. </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_breaking_virus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tulip breaking virus">Tulip breaking virus</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> is famous for its dramatic<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Gfb1IOTK3UM/YTnqchxh0WI/AAAAAAAACiA/OQUVe93wYyME8ilHyFZlNLyPMbrcCVjtgCLcBGAsYHQ/s597/broken%2Btulips.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="597" data-original-width="474" height="127" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Gfb1IOTK3UM/YTnqchxh0WI/AAAAAAAACiA/OQUVe93wYyME8ilHyFZlNLyPMbrcCVjtgCLcBGAsYHQ/w119-h127/broken%2Btulips.jpg" width="119" /></a></div>effects on the color of the tulip </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perianth" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Perianth">perianth</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, an effect highly sought after during the 17th-century Dutch "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_mania" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tulip mania">tulip mania</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">." </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">Tobacco mosaic virus</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (TMV) and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauliflower_mosaic_virus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cauliflower mosaic virus">cauliflower mosaic virus</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (CaMV) is frequently used in plant molecular biology. Of special interest is the CaMV 35S </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoter_(biology)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Promoter (biology)">promoter</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, which is a very strong promoter most frequently used in plant </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformations</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. Viral vectors based on the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">tobacco mosaic virus</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> include those of the </span><a class="external text" href="https://www.icongenetics.com/technology/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/external-ltr.svg?59558") right center no-repeat rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #3366bb; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration-line: none;">magnICON®</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">and TRBO plant expression technologies. </span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Representative applications of plant viruses are listed below.</span></div><div><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold;">Applications of plant viruses</span><table class="wikitable" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 1em 0px;"><tbody><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><b>Use</b></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><b>Description</b></td><th style="background-color: #eaecf0; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;"><br /></th></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Enhanced plant aesthetics</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Increase the beauty and commercial value of ornamental plants</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Cross‐protection</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Delivery of mild virus strains to prevent infections by their severe relatives</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Weed biocontrol</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Viruses triggering lethal systemic necrosis as bioherbicides</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Pest biocontrol</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Enhanced toxin and pesticide delivery for insect and nematode control</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Nanoparticle scaffolds</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Virion surfaces are functionalized and used to assemble nanoparticles</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Nanocarriers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Virions are used to transport cargo compounds</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoreactor" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nanoreactor">Nanoreactors</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Enzymes are encapsulated into virions to engineer cascade reactions</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Recombinant protein/peptide expression</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Fast, transient overproduction of recombinant peptide, polypeptide libraries, and protein complexes</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Functional genomic studies</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Targeted gene silencing using <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIGS" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="VIGS">VIGS</a> and miRNA viral vectors</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_editing" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Targeted genome editing <i>via</i> transient delivery of sequence‐specific nucleases</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Metabolic pathway engineering</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Biosynthetic pathway rewiring to improve the production of native and foreign metabolites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Flowering induction</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Viral expression of <i>FLOWERING LOCUS T</i> to accelerate flowering induction and crop breeding</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><br /></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Crop <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Open‐field use of viral vectors for transient reprogramming of crop traits within a single growing season</td></tr></tbody></table></div></span></div></span></div></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-51830911517213986562021-08-04T00:55:00.000+08:002021-08-04T00:55:38.760+08:00Corona discharge<p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-T259snhi1VE/YQlvVHYqIqI/AAAAAAAACfo/q5jDZARkzGwW6UHwJbSIoPSUlnYtox59wCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/corona.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="355" data-original-width="474" height="132" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-T259snhi1VE/YQlvVHYqIqI/AAAAAAAACfo/q5jDZARkzGwW6UHwJbSIoPSUlnYtox59wCLcBGAsYHQ/w176-h132/corona.jpg" width="176" /></a></div>A<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><b style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">corona discharge</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">is an</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_discharge" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electrical discharge">electrical discharge</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">caused by the</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ionization">ionization</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">of a</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fluid">fluid</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">such as air surrounding a</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_(material)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Conductor (material)">conductor</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">carrying a high voltage. It represents a local region where the air (or other fluid) has undergone</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_breakdown" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electrical breakdown">electrical breakdown</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">and become conductive, allowing charge to continuously leak off the conductor into the air. A corona occurs at locations where the strength of the electric field (</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_gradient" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Potential gradient">potential gradient</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">) around a conductor exceeds the</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_strength" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">of the air. It is often seen as a bluish glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages and emits light by the same mechanism as a</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_discharge_lamp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gas discharge lamp">gas discharge lamp</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">.</span><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">In many high voltage applications, the corona is an unwanted side effect. Corona discharge from high voltage electric power <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Transmission line">transmission lines</a> constitutes an economically significant waste of energy for utilities. In high voltage equipment like <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> televisions, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_transmitter" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Radio transmitter">radio transmitters</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_machine" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">X-ray machines</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_accelerator" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>, the current leakage caused by coronas can constitute an unwanted load on the circuit. In the air, coronas generate gases such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone">ozone</a> (O<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">3</sub>) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_oxide" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> (NO), and in turn, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> (NO<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub>), and thus <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> (HNO<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">3</sub>) if <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapor" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> is present. These gases are corrosive and can degrade and embrittle nearby materials and are toxic to humans and the environment.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Corona discharges can often be suppressed by improved insulation, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_ring" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corona ring">corona rings</a>, and making high voltage electrodes in smooth rounded shapes. However, controlled corona discharges are used in a variety of processes such as air filtration, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopier" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">photocopiers</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_generator" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone generator">ozone generators</a>.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Introduction">Introduction</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A corona discharge is a process by which a current flows from an electrode with a high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Potential">potential</a> into a neutral fluid, usually air, by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ion">ionizing</a> that fluid to create a region of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> around the electrode. The ions generated eventually pass the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric charge">charge</a> to nearby areas of lower potential, or recombine to form neutral gas molecules.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">When the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_gradient" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Potential gradient">potential gradient</a> (electric field) is large enough at a point in the fluid, the fluid ionizes and becomes conductive. If a charged object has a sharp point, the electric field strength </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--CYVS_v03hI/YQlvq5Jxs7I/AAAAAAAACfw/ck9TK6VrxhACmHubftK8sVdzp7d15apCwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/corona%2Bozone.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="214" data-original-width="474" height="102" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--CYVS_v03hI/YQlvq5Jxs7I/AAAAAAAACfw/ck9TK6VrxhACmHubftK8sVdzp7d15apCwCLcBGAsYHQ/w226-h102/corona%2Bozone.jpg" width="226" /></a></div>around that point will be much higher than elsewhere. Air near the electrode can become ionized (partially conductive), while regions more distant do not. When the air near the point becomes conductive, it increases the apparent size of the conductor. Since the new conductive region is less sharp, the ionization may not extend past this local region. Outside this region of ionization and conductivity, the charged particles slowly find their way to an oppositely charged object and are neutralized.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Along with the similar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_discharge" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Brush discharge">brush discharge</a>, the corona is often called a "single-electrode discharge", as opposed to a "two-electrode discharge" – an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a>. A corona only forms when the conductor is widely enough separated from conductors at the opposite potential that an arc cannot jump between them. If the geometry and gradient are such that the ionized region continues to grow until it reaches another conductor at a lower potential, a low resistance conductive path between the two will be formed, resulting in an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_spark" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric spark">electric spark</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a>, depending upon the source of the electric field. If the source continues to supply current, a spark will evolve into a continuous discharge called an arc.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Corona discharge only forms when the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric field">electric field</a> (potential gradient) at the surface of the conductor exceeds a critical value, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_strength" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a>, or the disruptive potential gradient of the fluid. In air at atmospheric pressure, it is roughly 30 kilovolts per centimeter, but this decreases with pressure, so corona is more of a problem at high altitudes. Corona discharge usually forms at highly curved regions on electrodes, such as sharp corners, projecting points, edges of metal surfaces, or small diameter wires. The high curvature causes a high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_gradient" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Potential gradient">potential gradient</a> at these locations so that the air breaks down and forms <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> there first. On sharp points in the air, corona can start at potentials of 2–6 kV. To suppress corona formation, terminals on high voltage equipment are frequently designed with smooth large-diameter rounded shapes like balls or toruses, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_ring" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corona ring">corona rings</a> are often added to insulators of high voltage transmission lines.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Coronas may be <i>positive</i> or <i>negative</i>. This is determined by the polarity of the voltage on the highly curved electrode. If the curved electrode is positive concerning the flat electrode, it has a <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge#Positive_coronas" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">positive corona</a></i>; if it is negative, it has a <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge#Negative_coronas" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;">negative corona</a></i>. The physics of positive and negative coronas are strikingly different. This asymmetry is a result of the great difference in mass between electrons and positively charged <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ion">ions</a>, with only the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electron">electron</a> having the ability to undergo a significant degree of ionizing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inelastic_collision" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Inelastic collision">inelastic collision</a> at common temperatures and pressures.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">An important reason for considering coronas in the production of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone">ozone</a> around conductors undergoing corona processes in air. A negative corona generates much more ozone than the corresponding positive corona.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications">Applications</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Corona discharge has several commercial and industrial applications:</p><ul style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Removal of unwanted electric charges from the surface of aircraft in flight and thus avoiding the detrimental effect of uncontrolled electrical discharge pulses on the performance of avionic systems</li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Manufacture of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">ozone</a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title=""></a><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YyfmMD-gWJo/YQlwL6JvEcI/AAAAAAAACf4/yRWK8xg1n54g7cJ7P7oap5U0iEdVeBYXACLcBGAsYHQ/s474/corona%2Bsurface.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="316" data-original-width="474" height="120" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YyfmMD-gWJo/YQlwL6JvEcI/AAAAAAAACf4/yRWK8xg1n54g7cJ7P7oap5U0iEdVeBYXACLcBGAsYHQ/w181-h120/corona%2Bsurface.jpg" width="181" /></a></div></li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Sanitization of pool water</li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corona ring">electrostatic precipitator</a>, removal of solid pollutants from a waste gas stream, or scrubbing particles from the air in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-conditioning_systems" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air-conditioning systems">air-conditioning systems</a></li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopying" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Photocopying">Photocopying</a></li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_ioniser" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air ioniser">Air ionizers</a></li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Production of photons for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirlian_photography" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian photography</a> to expose photographic film</li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EHD_thruster" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="EHD thruster">EHD thrusters</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifter_(ionic_propulsion_device)" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lifter (ionic propulsion device)">lifters</a>, and other <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_wind" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ionic wind">ionic wind</a> devices</li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_laser" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">Nitrogen laser</a></li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ionization of a gaseous sample for subsequent analysis in a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a> or an <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_mobility_spectrometer" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ion mobility spectrometer">ion mobility spectrometer</a></li><li style="font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Static charge neutralization, as applied through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antistatic_device" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antistatic device">antistatic devices</a> like ionizing bars</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Refrigeration of electronic devices by forced convection</span></li></ul><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Coronas can be used to generate charged surfaces, which is an effect used in electrostatic copying (<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopying" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Photocopying">photocopying</a>). They can also be used to remove particulate matter from air streams by first charging the air, and then passing the charged stream through a comb of alternating polarity, to deposit the charged particles onto oppositely charged plates.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The free radicals and ions generated in corona reactions can be used to scrub the air of certain noxious products, through chemical reactions, and can be used to produce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone">ozone</a>.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Problems">Problems</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Coronas can generate audible and radio-frequency noise, particularly near <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric power transmission">electric power transmission</a> lines. Therefore, power transmission equipment is designed to minimize the formation of corona discharge.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Corona discharge is generally undesirable in:</p><ul style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a>, where it causes:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Power loss<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1MUhPMTB5hI/YQlwWgJtCjI/AAAAAAAACf8/ncOIq2TsXnQPdDHQAQRm60DCD9z3vBkbACLcBGAsYHQ/s474/corona%2Bpartial%2Bdischarge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="316" data-original-width="474" height="123" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1MUhPMTB5hI/YQlwWgJtCjI/AAAAAAAACf8/ncOIq2TsXnQPdDHQAQRm60DCD9z3vBkbACLcBGAsYHQ/w185-h123/corona%2Bpartial%2Bdischarge.jpg" width="185" /></a></div></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Audible noise</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Electromagnetic interference</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Purple glow</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone">Ozone</a> production</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Insulation damage</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Possible distress in animals that are sensitive to ultraviolet light</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Electrical components such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Transformer">transformers</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generator" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electrical generator">generators</a>:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Corona can progressively damage the insulation inside these devices, leading to equipment failure</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomer" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nitrogen laser">Elastomer</a> items such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-ring" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="O-ring">O-rings</a> can suffer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_cracking" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone cracking">ozone cracking</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_capacitor#AC_voltage_and_current" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">Plastic film capacitors</a> operating at mains voltage can suffer progressive loss of capacitance as corona discharges cause local vaporization of the metallization</li></ul></li></ul><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">In many cases, coronas can be suppressed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_ring" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corona ring">corona rings</a>, toroidal devices that serve to spread the electric field over a larger area and decrease the field gradient below the corona threshold.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Electrical_wind">Electrical wind</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Ionized gases produced in a corona discharge are accelerated by the electric field, producing a movement of gas or </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_wind" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corona wind">electrical wind</a></i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">. The air movement associated with a discharge current of a few hundred <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-MkAeg9TAjko/YQlyNrXv43I/AAAAAAAACgI/QHokSyp6awo9M64eEf_0-bnm1hSg7CAnwCLcBGAsYHQ/s220/Corona%2Belectrical%2Bwind.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="220" data-original-width="220" height="101" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-MkAeg9TAjko/YQlyNrXv43I/AAAAAAAACgI/QHokSyp6awo9M64eEf_0-bnm1hSg7CAnwCLcBGAsYHQ/w101-h101/Corona%2Belectrical%2Bwind.jpg" width="101" /></a></div>microamperes can blow out a small candle flame within about 1 cm of a discharge point. A pinwheel, with radial metal spokes and pointed tips bent to point along the circumference of a circle, can be made to rotate if energized by a corona discharge; the rotation is due to the differential electric attraction between the metal spokes and the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_charge" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Space charge">space charge</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> shield region that surrounds the tips.</span></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-49304989098318892342021-07-08T12:35:00.001+08:002021-07-08T14:45:18.010+08:00Snot (Alga/Microorganisms)<p><span style="background-color: white;"><b style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="font-size: large;">Rock Snot</span></b><b style="color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: italic;"> - Didymosphenia geminata</b></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, commonly known as </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">didymo</b><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, is a species </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zF02_lviETI/YOZ-WlKM-wI/AAAAAAAACdA/aZsOo0hvTYwni-F1IxesrSXeQpv_4hUdwCLcBGAsYHQ/s672/rock%2Bsnot.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="372" data-original-width="672" height="117" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zF02_lviETI/YOZ-WlKM-wI/AAAAAAAACdA/aZsOo0hvTYwni-F1IxesrSXeQpv_4hUdwCLcBGAsYHQ/w212-h117/rock%2Bsnot.jpg" width="212" /></a></div>of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Diatom">diatom</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> that </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">produces nuisance growths in freshwater rivers and streams with consistently cold water temperatures and low nutrient levels.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> It is native to the northern hemisphere, and considered an invasive species in Australia, Argentina,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> New Zealand,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and Chile.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Even within its native range, it has taken on invasive characteristics since the 1980s.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> It is not considered a significant human health risk,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> but it can affect stream </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat">habitats</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and sources of food for fish and make recreational activities unpleasant. This microscopic </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">alga</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> can be spread in a single drop of water.</span><p></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Native_range">Native range</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The native distribution of </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">D. geminata</i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> is the cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including the rivers of northern forests and alpine regions of Europe, Asia and parts of North America.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--83B_qSGMR0/YOZ-5c4mUMI/AAAAAAAACdM/gPu5V0iE20saclJneJNrb7CAs3r5CXDGwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/rock%2Bsnot%2Balgae.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="314" data-original-width="474" height="123" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--83B_qSGMR0/YOZ-5c4mUMI/AAAAAAAACdM/gPu5V0iE20saclJneJNrb7CAs3r5CXDGwCLcBGAsYHQ/w185-h123/rock%2Bsnot%2Balgae.jpg" width="185" /></a></div>Until its recent discovery in New Zealand, where it was introduced, it was never previously found in the Southern Hemisphere.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> The distribution of didymo in the last two decades appears to be gradually expanding outside its native range. Even within its native range, there have been reports of excessive growths in areas where it previously existed only in low concentrations.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Adverse_effects">Adverse effects</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Didymo can have a notable impact on the insects that are a food source for many species of fish. It can form massive </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">. It makes riverbeds slippery posing a danger to waders and swimmers. Didymo blooms also pose a hazard for: hydroelectric power generation, irrigation and recreational water usage.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Preventing_further_spread">Preventing further spread</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The following methods have been recommended to prevent the spread of didymo in New Zealand:</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Check</b>: Before leaving the river, remove all obvious clumps of algae and look for hidden clumps. Leave them at the site. If you find clumps later don't wash them down the drain, treat them with the approved methods below, dry them and soak them in bleach for at least 4 hours.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Clean</b>: Soak and scrub all items for at least one minute in either hot (60 °C) water, a 2% solution of household bleach, antiseptic hand cleaner, or dishwashing detergent.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZIWr3niiMuU/YOZ-kCB5a-I/AAAAAAAACdE/4QdYLpadrH0a-KfWdYOViwGWpZ8sxo4hwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/rock%2Bsnot%2Bin%2Bshoe.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="349" data-original-width="474" height="107" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZIWr3niiMuU/YOZ-kCB5a-I/AAAAAAAACdE/4QdYLpadrH0a-KfWdYOViwGWpZ8sxo4hwCLcBGAsYHQ/w145-h107/rock%2Bsnot%2Bin%2Bshoe.jpg" width="145" /></a></div><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Dry</b>: If cleaning is not practical (e.g. livestock, pets), after the item is completely dry wait an additional 48 hours before contact or use in any other waterway.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">New Zealand and the U.S. states of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Dakota" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermont" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> have banned anglers from wearing felt-soled boots. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orvis" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Orvis">Orvis</a>, a leading U.S. manufacturer of fly-fishing equipment, has started selling more rubber-soled boots than felt-soled.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b><i><span style="font-size: large;">Sea Snot</span></i><span style="font-size: 14px;"> - Marine mucilage, </span></b><span style="font-size: 14px;">or </span><b style="font-size: 14px;">sea saliva</b><span style="font-size: 14px;"> is a collection of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mucus">mucus</a><span style="font-size: 14px;">-like organic matter found in the </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RMtB1HRLwag/YOZ_cj_x30I/AAAAAAAACdc/q2GWAa2pUf0lOZoyrh-Ctl7ZA8MavPYPwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/sea%2Bsnot%2Boutbreak.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="87" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RMtB1HRLwag/YOZ_cj_x30I/AAAAAAAACdc/q2GWAa2pUf0lOZoyrh-Ctl7ZA8MavPYPwCLcBGAsYHQ/w155-h87/sea%2Bsnot%2Boutbreak.jpg" width="155" /></a></div>sea. </span><span style="font-size: 14px;">The creamy, gelatinous substance is generally not harmful, but can attract </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Virus">viruses</a><span style="font-size: 14px;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a><span style="font-size: 14px;">, including </span><i style="font-size: 14px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i><span style="font-size: 14px;">, and it can become a blanket that suffocates the marine life below.</span><span style="font-size: 14px;"> It is frequently seen in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a><span style="font-size: 14px;"> and has recently spread to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">Sea of Marmara</a><span style="font-size: 14px;">.</span><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Marine mucilage, also called sea snot, "is essentially a mass of microorganisms enriched by components of excessive nutrients from untreated waste discharged into the sea." Professor Hüseyin Erduğan<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Y2NNFaPY-pk/YOZ_quT1VgI/AAAAAAAACdg/tBjXRqRdBjkNj09ARYXkEw5DEt_2lSzlQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/sea%2Bsnots%2Bat%2Bturkey.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="127" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Y2NNFaPY-pk/YOZ_quT1VgI/AAAAAAAACdg/tBjXRqRdBjkNj09ARYXkEw5DEt_2lSzlQCLcBGAsYHQ/w226-h127/sea%2Bsnots%2Bat%2Bturkey.jpg" width="226" /></a></div>from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87anakkale_Onsekiz_Mart_University" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University">Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">'s Department of Biology, explains that "the mucilage is actually an </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exopolysaccharide" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Exopolysaccharide">exopolysaccharide</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> (a </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomacromolecular_complex" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biomacromolecular complex">biomacromolecule</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> composed of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> residues emitted by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">) and that while </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollution">pollution</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> did aggravate the sea snot problem, it was ultimately caused by those microorganisms."</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> The increase in sea snot is due to the large increase of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> (phosphorus values were measured to be three to four times higher than previous year) and other excessive </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> combined with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Drought">drought</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> conditions and with prolonged warm temperatures and calm weather.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Globs of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_snow" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coagulation">coagulate</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> into large blobs that can span distances as large as 125 miles (200 km).</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> The mucilage has many components, including a wide range of microorganisms including </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Virus">viruses</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exopolymer" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Exopolymer">exopolymeric</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> compounds with </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidal" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Colloidal">colloidal</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> properties.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Sea snot is also produced by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> when they are stressed.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Effects">Effects</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The significant increase in the amount of sea snot in 2021 in Turkey suddenly became a political issue as well as an environmental issue. The growth in snot that year was exponential as it reached a tipping point in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and other seas. Sea snot was observed clumping at least as early as 2009. Some overgrowth is partly due to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea of Marmara">climate change</a>. Warmer, slower moving waters increase the production of sea snot and allow it to accumulate in massive blobs. Sea snot was first reported in 1729 and has long been seen as a nuisance to the fishing industry and coastal populations. Recently, sea snot has emerged not only as a nuisance, but as a major hazard. Its not just that globs of snot can harbor bacteria such as <i>E. coli</i> which threaten maritime flora and fauna, as well as humans exposed to contaminated water but sea snot can also coat the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gills" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gills">gills</a> of sea creatures subsumed in it, cutting off oxygen and killing them.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PXIJd7lm7lo/YOZ_0vbHGGI/AAAAAAAACdo/Q96PslL2K4YJZD_hoqX1kOTWR9yLrIFJwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1024/sea%2Bsnots.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="580" data-original-width="1024" height="128" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PXIJd7lm7lo/YOZ_0vbHGGI/AAAAAAAACdo/Q96PslL2K4YJZD_hoqX1kOTWR9yLrIFJwCLcBGAsYHQ/w225-h128/sea%2Bsnots.jpg" width="225" /></a></div><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Deepwater Horizon oil spill">Deepwater Horizon oil spill</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> created large amounts of sea snot. Scientists are not sure how exactly the spill caused so much sea snot to form, but one theory asserts that the sea snot could have been the result of a massive kill of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_microorganism" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine microorganism">microscopic marine life</a> creating a "blizzard" of marine snow. Scientists worry that the mass of sea snot could pose a biohazard to surviving <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_life" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">marine life</a> in the area. It is widely believed that the sea snot left by the spill directly resulted in the loss of sea life in the Gulf of Mexico, as evidenced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill#Impacts_to_marine_species#Corals" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill">a dead field of deepwater coral</a> 11 kilometers from the Deepwater Horizon station.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">In early 2021, sea snot spread in the Sea of Marmara, due to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollution">pollution</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> dumped into seawater, which led to the proliferation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, and posed a great threat to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_biome" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine biome">marine biome</a>. The port of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdek" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Erdek">Erdek</a> at the Sea of Marmara was covered by the sea snot, in which Turkish workers embarked on a massive effort to vacuum up the slimy marine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucilage" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mucilage">mucilage</a> in June 2021. At that time it was not clear how to remove the underwater mucilage. Yalıköy port in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordu_Province" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ordu Province">Ordu Province</a> also witnessed accumulating mucilage in June 2021, in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Countermeasures">Countermeasures</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Short-term countermeasures include collecting it from the sea surface and laying barriers on the sea surface.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Long-term countermeasures include improving </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> creating </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_protected_area" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine protected area">marine protected areas</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">,</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">limiting climate change</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Another effort could be developing such water bodies as tourist hubs so that waters do not remain stagnant for long which contributes for accumulation of sea snot.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Another one could be introducing such marine species in the sea which could consume excessive nutrients, for cleaning purpose only and later keeping them in artificially developed habitats.</span></span></div></span></div></span></div></div></span></div></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8169270278845488064.post-46741121560441675912021-06-14T22:44:00.002+08:002021-06-18T13:19:41.573+08:00Bamboo Carbon Farming<p><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Carbon farming</b><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> is a name for a variety of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Agriculture">agricultural methods</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> aimed at </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestering atmospheric carbon</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> into the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soil">soil</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_lwIXGewFlA/YMdkfKTodQI/AAAAAAAACbI/v1ahCllDl74Zt2SU8ccMdxb86Q-WlyxKACLcBGAsYHQ/s275/Carbon%2Bfarming.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="183" data-original-width="275" height="130" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_lwIXGewFlA/YMdkfKTodQI/AAAAAAAACbI/v1ahCllDl74Zt2SU8ccMdxb86Q-WlyxKACLcBGAsYHQ/w196-h130/Carbon%2Bfarming.jpg" width="196" /></a></div>which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. <span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Increasing a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soil organic matter">soil's organic matter</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> and reduce fertilizer use</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px 0.15em 0px 0.25em;">×</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">10</span><sup style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">10</sup><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> acres) of world farmland.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in Carbon farming. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners typically need a way in which they can profit from the use of carbon farming and different governments will have different programs.</span><p></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Soil_carbon">Soil carbon</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">In part, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_carbon" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a> is thought to accumulate when decaying organic matter was physically mixed with soil. Small roots die and decay while the plant is alive, depositing carbon below the surface. More recently, the role of living plants has been emphasized where carbon is released as plants grow. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--JjbSWJtAss/YMdk15g5VtI/AAAAAAAACbQ/C5p-LC0P1NgQbPk_zIBoh-cYsS_nWv7vQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/soil%2Bcarbon.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="474" height="123" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--JjbSWJtAss/YMdk15g5VtI/AAAAAAAACbQ/C5p-LC0P1NgQbPk_zIBoh-cYsS_nWv7vQCLcBGAsYHQ/w219-h123/soil%2Bcarbon.jpg" width="219" /></a></div>Soils can contain up to five per cent carbon by weight, including decomposing plant and animal matter and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochar" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biochar">biochar</a>.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">About half of soil carbon is found within deep soils. About 90% of this is stabilized by mineral-organic associations.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">At least thirty-two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Resources_Conservation_Service" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Natural Resources Conservation Service">Natural Resource Conservation Service</a> (NRCS) practices improve soil health and sequester carbon, along with important co-benefits: increased water retention, hydrological function, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and resilience. Approved practices may make farmers eligible for federal funds. Not all carbon farming techniques have been recommended. Carbon farming may consider related issues such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and surface water degradation.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="By_sector">By sector</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Forestry">Forestry</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Forestry and Agriculture are both Land-based human activities that add up to contribute approximately a third of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. There is a large interest in reforestation, but in regards to carbon farming most of that reforestation opportunity will be in small patches with trees being planted by individual land owners in exchange for benefits provided by carbon farming programs. Forestry in Carbon farming can be both reforestation, which is restoring forests to areas that were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Deforestation">deforested</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afforestation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> which would be planting forests in areas that were not historically forested. Not all forests will sequester the same amount of carbon. Carbon sequestration is dependent on several factors which can include forest age, forest type, amount of biodiversity, the management practices the forest is experiences and climate. Biodiversity is often thought to be a side benefit of carbon farming, but in forest ecosystems increased biodiversity can increase the rate of carbon sequestration and can be a tool in carbon farming and not just a side benefit.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: left;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Bamboo"><span style="font-size: medium;">Bamboo</span></span></h3><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> forest stores will store less total carbon than most types of mature forest. However, it can store a similar total amount of carbon as rubber plantation and tree orchard, and can surpass the total carbon </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-MBkdUtWQ76c/YMdlOpNbm4I/AAAAAAAACbc/P-5_9l0yWUk06-tQoL5sVIZAHMUei6RMwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/bamboo%2Bvariant.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="296" data-original-width="474" height="124" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-MBkdUtWQ76c/YMdlOpNbm4I/AAAAAAAACbc/P-5_9l0yWUk06-tQoL5sVIZAHMUei6RMwCLcBGAsYHQ/w200-h124/bamboo%2Bvariant.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>stored in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforestry" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Agroforestry">agroforests</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_oil" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> plantations, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassland" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> and shrublands. Bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Although it has been found that only new plantations or plantations with active management will be sequestering carbon at a faster rate than mature forests. Against other tree species that like bamboo will grow fast, bamboo is only superior in its ability to sequester carbon if selectively harvested. Bamboo forests are especially high in potential for carbon sequestration if the cultivated plant material are turned into durable products that keep the carbon in the plant material for a long period because bamboo is both fast growing and does well with regrowth following an annual cultivation. While, bamboo gives the ability to store carbon as biomass in cultivated material, more than half of the carbon sequestration done by bamboo will store carbon in the soil. Carbon that is sequestered into the soil by bamboo is stored by the rhizomes and roots which is biomass that will remain in the soil after plant material above the soil is harvested and is stored long-term. Bamboo can be planted in sub-optimal land that could not cultivate other crop plants and the benefit would include not only carbon sequestration but it would improve the quality of the land for future crops and reduce the amount of land subject to deforestation. The use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a> is also available to farmers who use bamboo to gain carbon credit in otherwise uncultivated land.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizome" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rhizome">rhizome</a>-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 910 mm (36 in) within a 24-hour period, at a rate of</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ru2cb-yLTOY/YMdlafYRl3I/AAAAAAAACbk/tB390Y1wIP0Qo4S6X4pNyGmHHuiD3hRswCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/bamboo%2Bcultivation.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="248" data-original-width="474" height="104" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ru2cb-yLTOY/YMdlafYRl3I/AAAAAAAACbk/tB390Y1wIP0Qo4S6X4pNyGmHHuiD3hRswCLcBGAsYHQ/w201-h104/bamboo%2Bcultivation.jpg" width="201" /></a></div>almost 40 mm (<span class="frac" role="math" style="white-space: nowrap;">1<span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 1px;">+</span><span class="num" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: super;">1</span>⁄<span class="den" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 0; vertical-align: sub;">2</span></span> in) an hour (a growth around 1 mm every 90 seconds, or 1 inch {2.54 centimeters} every 40 minutes). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_bamboo" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">Giant bamboos</a> are the largest members of the grass family. This rapid growth and tolerance for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_land" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marginal land">marginal land</a>, make bamboo a good candidate for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afforestation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Therefore the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Cultivation">Cultivation</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Bamboo_cultivation">Bamboo cultivation</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo forestry</a> (also known as bamboo farming, cultivation, agriculture or agroforestry) is a cultivation and raw material industry that provides the raw materials for the broader bamboo industry, worth over 72 billion dollars globally in 2019.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nOJtRAJp9L4/YMwsuPO8lKI/AAAAAAAACcg/K2Q_vpofGN8ubVn5h0qDxoOG0-eGX1SKwCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/china%2Bbamboo%2Bfurniture.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="273" data-original-width="474" height="124" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nOJtRAJp9L4/YMwsuPO8lKI/AAAAAAAACcg/K2Q_vpofGN8ubVn5h0qDxoOG0-eGX1SKwCLcBGAsYHQ/w216-h124/china%2Bbamboo%2Bfurniture.jpg" width="216" /></a></div>Historically, a dominant raw material in South and South East Asia, the global bamboo industry has<span style="background-color: transparent;">significantly grown in recent decades in part because of the high sustainability of bamboo as compared to other biomass cultivation strategies, such as traditional timber </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry" style="background: none transparent; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Forestry">forestry</a><span style="background-color: transparent;">. For example, as of 2016, the U.S. Fiber corporation </span><a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resource_Fiber&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none transparent; color: #ba0000; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Resource Fiber (page does not exist)">Resource Fiber</a><span style="background-color: transparent;"> is contracting farmers in the United States for Bamboo cultivation. Or in 2009, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization" style="background: none transparent; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United Nations Industrial Development Organization">United Nations Industrial Development Organization</a><span style="background-color: transparent;"> published guidelines for cultivation of bamboo in semi-arid climates in Ethiopia and Kenya.</span><p></p><p></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Because bamboo can grow on otherwise <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_land" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marginal land">marginal land</a>, bamboo can be profitably cultivated in many degraded lands. Moreover, because of the rapid growth bamboo is an effective <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> crop, absorbing between 100 and 400 tonnes of carbon per hectare. In 1997, an international intergovernmental organization was established to promote the development of bamboo cultivation, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Bamboo_and_Rattan_Organisation" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation">International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation</a>.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Bamboo is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllostachys" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phyllostachys">Phyllostachys</a></i>, are known as "timber bamboos". Bamboo is typically harvested as a source material for construction, food, crafts and other manufactured goods.</p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Uses</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Fuel">Fuel</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Bamboo <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> comes from pieces of bamboo plants, harvested after at least five years, and burned in </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--NXBBY9G19k/YMdltcJPTuI/AAAAAAAACbw/O2eFkIkNE3wCNx947CQ63b9tKrg8uhxWQCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/bamboo%2Bcharcoal.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="316" data-original-width="474" height="95" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--NXBBY9G19k/YMdltcJPTuI/AAAAAAAACbw/O2eFkIkNE3wCNx947CQ63b9tKrg8uhxWQCLcBGAsYHQ/w143-h95/bamboo%2Bcharcoal.jpg" width="143" /></a></div>ovens at temperatures ranging from 800 to 1200 °C. It benefits <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_protection" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a> by reducing pollutant residue. It is an environmentally functional material featuring excellent absorption properties.<p></p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Bamboo charcoal has a long Chinese history, with documents dating as early as 1486 during the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">Ming dynasty</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> in </span><a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chuzhou_Fu_Zhi&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #ba0000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chuzhou Fu Zhi (page does not exist)">Chuzhou Fu Zhi</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> There is also mention of it during the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, during the reigns of emperors </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">Guangxu</a>.</span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Fabric">Fabric</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_textile" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Reed pen">Bamboo textile</a> is any cloth, yarn or clothing made from bamboo fibres. While historically used only for structural elements, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bustle" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bustle">bustles</a> and the ribs of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsets" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">corsets</a>, in recent years different technologies have been developed that allow bamboo fibre to be used for a wide range of textile and fashion applications.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hIP-X9T1RNg/YMdmS4hQ2PI/AAAAAAAACb8/lk8xsMkXVFUqojWrxdrGfx2ut26tzQkjgCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/organic%2Bbamboo.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="474" data-original-width="474" height="145" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hIP-X9T1RNg/YMdmS4hQ2PI/AAAAAAAACb8/lk8xsMkXVFUqojWrxdrGfx2ut26tzQkjgCLcBGAsYHQ/w145-h145/organic%2Bbamboo.jpg" width="145" /></a></div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Examples include clothing such as shirt tops, pants, socks for adults and children as well as bedding such as sheets and pillow covers. Bamboo yarn can also be blended with other textile fibres such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hemp">hemp</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandex" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Spandex">spandex</a>. Bamboo is an alternative to plastic that is renewable and can be replenished at a fast rate.</p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Modern clothing labeled as being made from bamboo is usually viscose </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rayon">rayon</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">, a fiber made by dissolving the cellulose in the bamboo, and then extruding it to form fibres. This process removes the natural characteristics of bamboo fibre, rendering it identical to rayon from other cellulose sources.</span></span></div><div><span class="mw-headline"><h3 style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_uses">Other uses</span></h3><div><span class="mw-headline"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_board#Bamboo" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cutting board">cutting boards</a>, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jōmon period (2000–1000 BC).</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Bamboo has a long history of use in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_furniture" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Asian furniture">Asian furniture</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_furniture" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chinese furniture">Chinese bamboo furniture</a> is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition, and bamboo is also used for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_floor" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bamboo floor">floors</a> due to its high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janka_hardness_test" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Janka hardness test">hardness</a>.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Several manufacturers offer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_bicycle" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bamboo bicycle">bamboo bicycles</a>, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-aXoypPT12u8/YMdmftbfA7I/AAAAAAAACcA/HhLnZ_lLlTUe1_iSVQ71OLtTka6xn-0TgCLcBGAsYHQ/s474/calcium%2Bcarbide.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="355" data-original-width="474" height="107" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-aXoypPT12u8/YMdmftbfA7I/AAAAAAAACcA/HhLnZ_lLlTUe1_iSVQ71OLtTka6xn-0TgCLcBGAsYHQ/w143-h107/calcium%2Bcarbide.jpg" width="143" /></a></div>Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_rod" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fishing rod">fishing rods</a>. The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split_cane_rod" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Split cane rod">split cane rod</a> is especially prized for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_fishing" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fly fishing">fly fishing</a>. Bamboo has been traditionally used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> as a firecracker called a <i>meriam buluh</i> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_cannon" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bamboo cannon">bamboo <br />cannon</a>. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbide" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Calcium carbide">calcium carbide</a> are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Desalination">water desalination</a>. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.<p></p><h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Challenges">Challenges</span></h2><div><span class="mw-headline"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">Carbon farming is not without its challenges or disadvantages. When ecosystem restoration is used as a form of carbon farming, there can be a lack of knowledge that is disadvantageous in project planning.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_service" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="">Ecosystem services</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> are often a side benefit of restoring ecosystems along with carbon farming, but often ecosystem services are ignored in project planning because, unlike carbon sequestration, is not a global commodity that can be traded.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> If and how carbon farming's additional sequestration methods can affect ecosystem services should be researched to determine how different methods and strategies will impact the value an ecosystem service in particular areas.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> One concern to note is that if policy and incentives are only aimed towards carbon sequestration then carbon farming could actually be harmful to ecosystems.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> Carbon farming could inadvertently cause an increase of land clearing and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculture" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Monoculture">monocultures</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"> when species diversity is not a goal of the landscapes project, so there should be attempts to balance the goals of carbon farming and biodiversity should be attempted.</span></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div></span></div>zurairyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11257078539309431616noreply@blogger.com